Sivananda/Satyananda-Yoga & Stress Management-South Delhi-Dr.Sandeep,India(delhi)Yoga

Sivananda Yoga Sevashram, South Delhi

Chapter – I

INTRODUCTION

The Stressful events as causes of illnesses have a long tradition in human history. In contemporary societies, stresses of one or the other kind have become a common source of the reat to mental and physical health and well – being of the people. They have become characteristic esserged in the context of unprecedented technological changes, accompanied by industrialization and increasing attraction to consumerism as an ideal or functional form of life. Thus the life of an average urban person has become a constant struggle with pressures, conflicts and limits (Misra and Verma, 1999). The stresses are continuously evoked and escape from them has become impossible. These developments have made stress a central phenomenon of interest to the students of many disciplines namely medicine, psychology, sociology and anthropology (Ramalinga Swami, 1990). While the contexts and sources of stress have been studied by different disciplines at different levels, its analysis remained the major concern of psychologists. As a result in the last few decades the nature and dynamics of stress and health have received considerable attention by psychologists around the globe.

Traditionally, the empirical study of stress and health has been undertaken within biological and psychological frameworks with little attention at integration of the two. Psychological researches on stress focus more on quantification which has often been done at 5the cost of oversimplification and disregard for the context and processes involved. The strategies to over come stress have been major concerns of health practitioners. Recent analyses of stress phenomena are gradually moving toward identification of the mediators and moderators of coping health related out comes. Also, several individual differences dimensions have been uncovered, which influence the processes of stress and coping.

The evidences emerging from these multi – faceted endeavors tend to suggest that there is so one – to – one correspondence between the objective stimulus conditions and stress / health related out comes for the individual and group. It has now become amply clear that stress cannot be meaningfully viewed as some exogenous noxious stimulus or responses of the body, rather, it is the product of a dynamic mismatch between the individual and his/her environment. Many behavioral characteristics and dispositions define the structure of any environmental encounter or behavioral episode (e.g. anasakti, hardiness, control, coping strategies, cognitive appraisal, etc.) and thus the personal conditioning variables become important. For example, people with Type – A. Behaviors pattern are more vulnerable to stresses then others. We live within the boundaries of our own cultural experiences. Hence personality and behavioral traits on the one hand, and social environment characteristics on the other, determine the nature of one’s experiences of stress and other well – being.

It needs to be noted that stress is not always bad. It is, in fact, a basic ingredient of life. Our system is equipped with certain innate “stress alarms” that allow people to function effectively in many situations. Without undergoing any stress there would not be constructive or creative activity. What we need is to reduce the amount of negative stress (distress) enjoy and appreciate positive stress (eustress). The meaning, mechanisms and management of stress are formed or constructed in the socio-cultural context of the people. Societies with their divergent world views have evolved different conceptualization of stress, health roles and responsibilities of a person. This along with particular ecological and social characteristics, determine the distribution of stressful experiences in different communities and groups.

The phenomenon of stress has largely been associated with affluence and western lifestyle. However, broad spectrum changes such as decline in the traditional family support system, migration and the influence of media are increasing the intensity and frequency of stressful experiences (Sinha, 1998). As a result, India is currently facing the problem of coping with the diseases of under development as well as the life style disease. The stress arising from the rapid changes, competition. Scarcity of resources, uncertainties time pressure etc. are being experienced with increasing frequency and intensity. All this necessitates in-depth scientific studies of stress and related health problems in the Indian Contest.

As a concept ‘health’ is intimately related to the notion of self and the view held by the people. The current professional perspective on health and stress are wedded to individualistic assumptions rooted in the north American and Western European discourses wherein the complex influence of culture is largely ignored (Beardsby & Pederson, 1997, Capewell, 1994; Lewis-Ferandez & Klienman, 1994, McName & Gergan, 1992, Janaka-Matsumi & Draguns, 1997). Cultures such as ours, with notions of embedded or ensemble self, do not partition the world very neatly in terms of self and environment. Within such frameworks, both constitute each other (Misra & Gergen, 1993). Instead of control the goal is to maintain harmony withy nature and play one’s due role (Kiran Kumar, 1986 Landrine, 1992; Misra, 1994). The extremely hedonistic and individual-conserved views which promotes growth, development and realization of potentials in a independent holds true largely in the contest of western societies (Markus & Kitayama, 1991). In the Indian contest, appreciation of symbiotic relationship (Sinha, 1990) is more prevalent and the person-environment unit is conceived to operate in a broader context.

Today stress is being considered as one of the prime causes of disease. A great deal & research has been done on this subject by scientists throughout the world and they have concluded that tensions, anxieties and disturbed mental conditions can cause serious physical ailments.There is a very long list of disease, such as blood pressure, cardiovascular disease and asthma, which are known as stress-born diseases. Psychologists, sociologists, medical professional etc. have concluded that 89% of all the ailments today are stress-born (Uduppa, 2000; Saraswati, 1991). Regarding management of stress and related problems, the yogic approach to stress management has to be holistic because of the very nature of the yogic concept of man. According to Yoga, man is not the isolated, separate individual body or person, as he likes to think himself to be. In fact, he is linked or connected to every other living being, animal and creature down to the invisible microbe-from the grossest physical link of being a progenitor or a progeny to another human being, to the most subtle link of being part of the cosmic soul and the cosmic consciousness

Ancient rishis and seers realized that the evolution of the individual consciousness to the level of the cosmic consciousness, and the merging into the cosmic, is the ultimately goal of man. Their search for methods to ensure, and whenever suitable, to accelerate to such an evolution, led then to the discovery of the science of Yoga. Yoga is very rich in its techniques at improving the function of the body organs and body systems, with just one specific purpose to make the mind calm. By the very definition of Yoga – ‘‘Yogaschitta vreti noridhal’’ (Y5, 1:2), Yoga helps us to block the patterns of consciousness, including the fight or flight response. Thus, yoga gets down to the very root of stress formation in our mind, giving us an therapy happens to be only a means to higher end (Saraswati, 1991).

In yogas the internal stimuli is reduced to the minimum, by making the body healthy, so that the body systems are able to function in a harmonious fashion, and the whole body in fine-tuned and balanced. Yoga also takes care of the external stimuli through the practice of pratyahara. In the state of pratyahara, or withdrawal of the sensory function, only the past memories stored in the brain can agitate the mind. These stored impressions are ‘cleasned’ through the practices of antramouna (Bhushan & Sinha, 2000), and other meditation techniques, and the negative impressions are removed.

When we clean out your mind of its accumulated dross and remove the inner turmoil or stress though the yogic practices. We transform it into a perfect instrument of perception, and also make it perfect analyzer of data and perfect instrument for translating thoughts into action. This is how our personal mind should work if it is stress-free and is not clogged with defects. Generally asanas, pranayamas, yoganidra, midetation etc. have been found very effective in the management of stress and related problems.Asanas greatly influence the functioning of the endocrine system. We know the important role the endocrine gland play during stress adaptation, by secreting the stress hormones. There is such an intricate relationship between the glands that one malfunctioning gland can cause the disruption of the whole system.Asanas bring about harmony in the functioning of the various other bodily systems, which are closely inter-woven; such as the circulatory, nervous, respiratory and digestive systems. Any disruption in the proper working relationship between these systems results in the loss of health and body efficiency. Here again, all these systems play an active role during the body’s adaptation to stress the practice of asana brings about mental and emotional equanimity, by showing down the breathing, and by depending the inhalation and exhalation (Sw. Satyananada, 1991,). Asana like pawanmuktasana, Suryanamaskar, Shasankasna, Paschimottanasana, bhujangasana etc. have been proved beneficial for stress management and stress, related problems (Sw. Satyananda, 2001; Rajhans, 1991, Sinha, 1999).

Pranayama is also very effective in stress management. The breath is the most vital process of the body. In influence the activities of each and every cell and most importantly is intimately linked with the performances of the brain. Rhythmic deep and slow respiration stimulates and is stimulated by calm, context states of mind. Irregular breathing disrupts the rhythms of the brain and leads to physical, emotional and mental blocks. These are turn, lead to inner conflict, imbalanced personality, disordered life style and disease. Pranayama establishes regular breathing patterns, breaking this negative cycle and reversing the process, It does so by taking control of the breath and re-establishing the natural, relaxed rhythms of the body and mind. (Saraswati Sw. Satyananda 1997)

Yoga nidra appears to work by changing the neurohumorul reactivity to stress, creating somatic conditions essentially opposite to those prompted by sympathetic over activity. During yoga nidra the organs and systems of the body attain deep physiological rest and body’s powerful, inherent regenerative mechanisms, are set in motion. As a result, the body tissues are physiologically braced against stress, becoming less susceptible to its harmful influences. The profound experience of muscular mental and emotional relaxation attainable in yoga nidra creates a balance of psychic and vital energies within the nadis in the body. The free flow of these energies forms the basis of optimal physical and mental health (Yoga, 1991).

Stress begins with out reaction to an event one of the most important factors that can be concluded from the studies of both ancient yogic literature and a modern scientific text is that there is not one but hundreds of causes that can create stress. There are doomsday prophecies made and these prophecies are very pessimistic. Does that not cause stress? It may not consciously cause stress, but it does cause stress in the unconscious mind. Psychology maintenance that when you suppress your experience they recede into the unconscious and emerge in the form of nightmares whatever stress you experience in your family, society or life, can be accumulated in any part of mind some times your stress is conscious, some time sub conscious and many times unconscious. Stress, which affects the conscious mind, is not very dangerous. Stress that is stored in your subconscious comes out in form of dreams. But the stress, which is unknown, which you don’t understand, goes into unconscious mind and can create havoc in your body. Mind emotion and personality stress however is not a surprise condition of the mind it comes through a particular mechanism. Stress arises out of tension. Tension is a condition of the nervous system finally travels to every atom and particle of the body. Some efforts have been made to determine what types of external events typically initiate stress responding. Important work in this area was done by Thomas Holmes and R.H. Rahe (1967). They analyzed the relationship between the amount of life change and illness. They found that as the amount of life. Change in crease and the change are more significant-such as a death in family or adverse the probability of illness increase. The changes may be of a positive nature such as buying a house, moving or taking a new job. Life changes demand a response; they set off emotional arousal activate the stress response and produce the type of internal wear and tear that leads to illness.

Another way to consider the causes of stress is to utilize the categories of environmental stressors, physical stressor. Examples of environmental stressors are harmful chemical, additives in our food, pollutants in the air, excessive and disturbing noise, extremes in temperature. Such environmental stressors were used by selye in his original experiments with animals and were found to be significant causes of stress. Loud traffic, the constant ringing of a telephone an endless barking dog or adoy of inhaling stinging smog are some examples of environmental stress. Physical stressors are those produces by our body condition. If we are over weight, undernourished, out of shape, or have chronic health problem. This will contribute to our stress problem. Psychological stressors interact with both environmental and physical stressors. For instance it is common to react to noise with anger or to react to our excessive weight with frustration and hopelessness. These emotional reactions a quickly create our stress and maintain and exacerbate our stress love is. It is indeed our psychological reaction to life changes to daily hassles and to environmental and physical stressors that ultimately determines our stress levels. There are also some purely psychological causes of stress for example worrying about the past of future, even worrying about being emotionally upset.

Various psychological factors play an important role in the causation of various psychosomatic diseases (stress disorder). Amongst them some might have been genetically inherited from parents whereas others might have been acquired after breath as a result of various environmental changes in addition, body constitution and psychic personality of an individual which are the products of the both inherited and acquired traits, also pay important role in the causation of psychosomatic disorders. Psychologically a well-adjusted normal person likes to be efficient, effective and flexible and is able to profit form his experience of the past. If such a person is exposed to any stressful situations he faces them with reasonable amount of courage and then by adopting fight or flight response. As soon as the circumstances change these emotional responses diminish and disappear. However if a person is psychologically abnormal he will have too much of responses which would be unproportional to the stimuli and whose effects remain in the person for an abnormally long time. In such persons the abnormal responses are unpredictable and irrational. Many persons especially those who have an introvert personality do not outwardly show that they are uncomfortable, tense or unhappy, such person’s external behavior may be completely different form what they feel internally. He or she may appear outwardly calm but feels quite upset inwardly.It is these persons who are likely to develop most of the psychosomatic disease. On the other hand extroverts are less likely to be affected by psychosomatic disease though they are likely to face many controversies in their life, which may lead to many visibly abnormal behaviors.

It is well known that all stressful situations produce feeling of anxiety, depression, anger frustration etc. and these feelings are usually associated with physical symptoms of palpitation and sweating headache etc. In addition these emotional stakes also produce autonomic motor and endocrinal changes which if prolonged may lead to the interaction of genetic personality factors and even to structural changes in various organs. These psychosomatic disorders include conditions like chronic duodenal ulcer, hypertension, bronchial asthma etc.How much various environmental factors contribute to the development of such disorders has been studied in recently years. In the personal factors death of a near relative, divorce, loss of employment, failure in examination, birth of handicapped child often precipitate the development of psychosomatic illness. Similarly a rapid change, migration from rural to urban areas and psychological maladjustment in the near environment may lead to the development of stress disorders.Similarly excessive intake of fat and carbohydrates will make a person more susceptible to cardiovascular diseases as result of excessive fatty deposition into blood vessels leading to arteriosclerosis. In such persons cardiovascular stress disorders are seen more commonly which ten to become more complicated from the very beginning. Similarly over nutrition especially excess of carbohydrate is more likely to cause diabetes mellitus.

Climate – Climate changes may also predispose certain disorders. Thus vasospastic disease such as Raynud’s disease, Burgers disease etc. is more common in cold climates than in hot climate. There can be many other examples of this.
Habits –It’s well known fact that people with smoking habits are more likely to develop various stress disorders than others. It is a fact that nicotine absorbed from the trachoebrochial tree after tobacco smoking stimulates the production of neurohumors. Tobacco smokers sometimes become somewhat hypersensitive to various stressors leading to many harmful effects. Similarly alcohol and other stimulating sub stares also can produce similar stressful reactions.
Overcrowding and noise pollution: In the presence of too many people with much increase in the noise level, such as we see in the slum areas of big cities one can really become a victim of any of the stress disorder much factor than others living in the secluded rural areas or in the well planned urban environments. Normally over crowding it self makes such serous psychological changes in the minds of people living there that they become highly sensitive and become very irritable. This is the because of the fact that they are exposed to too much of visual and auditory stimuli throughout the day and night. From the visual and auditory centers of the brain there is a continuous flow of impulses to other centers of the brain leading to the state of constant exhaustion.
Over Work: Excessive straining of the body and mind on any work disportionate to the capacity of an individual will also make him liable to get stress disorder rather very easily.

In ancient Indian medical science great importance was attached to the psychosomatic constitution both in health and disease, in modern medical science very little work has been done in this field. It is only anthropologists who studied this problem at the beginning of the century they divided human beings into three broad groups by the measurement of bony prominence.They designated them as Ectomorphs, Mesomorphs, Endomorphs, according to the predominance of neurological muscular or visceral activities respectively in these persons. Psychologically also such persons inherit a certain personality make up which is likely to be influenced greatly by various environmental factors especially during childhood. We estimated the neurohumoral content of the blood of all these persons. It was found that in ectomorphic constitution with neurotic temperament there is comparatively more of acetycholine in the blood. In mesomorphs with a aggressive temperament there is more of catecholamine. Where as in endomorphic people with sober temperament. A prior knowledge of these psychosomatic and neurohumoral constitutions would greatly help researchers to know as to how a person would respond to a stressful situation. Thus a person with ectomorphic constitution when exposed to too much stress is likely to get more of acetylcholine which may lead to the development of certain diseases such as chronic peptic ulcer in men, thyrotoxicasis in women, ulcerative colitis, etc. Similarly mesomorphs are more likely to develop hypertension or other cardiovascular disorders as a result of the excess of catecholamine circulation. The endomorphs that are genetically prone to liberate more of histamine during stress are more likely to develop allergy, asthma or arthritis. However all these genetic factors involved in psychosomatic constitution would be much influenced by different environment factors during fetal growth or after birth.

Chapter – II

MODELS OF STRESS

What purpose do models serve in any disciplines?
They serve exactly the same function as the architect’s models of a prospective building. First and fore most model gives the individual a birds eye view of the building, a holistic picture in a three dimensional form enabling both the architect and the owner to see what the completed building would look like exactly in the same way, when a scientist draws up a model he has certain goal’s in mind they are as follows: -

A model gives a holistic picture of the phenomenon under study. Thus a model of stress presents a visual image of the stress phenomenon in totality, the causal factors, the symptoms and the process and the end result.
A model is generally amenable to graphical reproduction in the form of a flow chart out lining this sequence of events occurring in the phenomenon under study.
Models are validated theories a theory decides the avenues of research and these research findings are then orchestrated in the model.
Since models depict all parts of the phenomenon they have an important function they help the scientist to deal with the problem areas in fact to present problem from occurring.

This model of stress was proposed by H. Selye (1950). In his experiments on rats at Mc Gill University, Selye found that during illness whereas most of the body showed signs of degeneration the adrenal cortex flourished. There seemed to be some adaptive value of the stress response evinced. After four decades of research Selye concluded that a series of four, closely related processes occurred under conditions of stress. It is these processes which help in bringing about the flight or flight response following a stress help in the adaptation process, Selye named the conglomerate the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS). General because the symptoms are nonspecific for example – when any one gets a promotion one had set eyes on for a long time or when one’s fired from one’s job. Adaptation because the reactions help one to face the changed situation. Syndrome since they tend to occur as a cluster which can be differentiated from other symptomatic cluster GAS, the first scientific model of how stress acts on the individual, consists of three stage’s :-

Stage 1: – Alarm reaction – Occurs upon sudden exposure to any noxious stimulation to which the individual is not adapted. The reaction has two phases -

Shock phase – Which is an immediate reaction accompanied by sings of injury such as increased heart rate (tuchycardia).
Counter shock phase - Which is a rebound phase. After initial shock when the body is caught unawares, it springs back into action. i.e., the sight of a person coming to rob one may cause one to freeze on the spot for a movement. However one soon joins the fray and does whatever one can to protect oneself. The phase is marked by the mobilization of physical resources for defensive purpose. This alarm reaction is so potent that if the organism is made to maintain it for a few hours it can lead to death. The reason is that the alarm reaction literally eats all energy. That is why many people feel completely drained out as an after math of any stress-combating event. If the living being survives this phase the second stage sets in.

Stage 2: - Stage of Resistance – The manifestation of this phase is completely opposite to that seen in stage 1. An individual who has suffered a major hip fracture feels extremely stressed initially. He is at loss to understand how life will go on the individual may experience acute anxiety or even depression. However since he has considerable determination and will power he musters up all his courage to tackle the new situation. That is the counter shock period. The stage of resistance may be said to begin at this point. This is the stage when the organism becomes attuned to the stressor and there may be consequent. Improvement or even disappearance of symptoms. Gradually he learns to cope with all the changed existences. Soon he realizes that though he is bedridden, life must go on and gradually things become easier. Adaptation sets in. During this stage of resistance the body turns towards anabolism with a return towards normal body weight. In other words his power of resistance builds up. At the same time he resists any further exposure to the stressor. The orthpaedician may advise him to stand up after about eight weeks and then start walking a few steps at a time. He is too scared to take the risk. The stress has already taken its tool and he feels unable to face any extra stressor. Curiously enough after more exposure to the noxious agent the acquired adoption is lost. The stage of exhaustion has set in.

Stage 3: - Style of exhaustion - Since adaptability has definite limits exhaustion must follow if the stressor persists. Symptoms reappear and death may ensue. Following exhaustion due to an excessively stressful activity, sleep and rest can restore resistance and adaptability almost to the previous levels. It is important to remember that complete restoration is probably impossible. It is yet not known what precisely causes the loss, except that is not merely shortage of caloric energy because food intake is normal during the resistance stage. It is generally believed that once adaptation is complete and energy is available resistance should continue. But this does not happen. The body becomes worn out just as a machine under goes wear and tear. This wear and tear is termed by selye as ‘irreversible chemical scars’. Here the living body can be likened to an inanimate machine, which too breaks down under constant wear and tear. According to selye his work enabled him to develop a very satisfactory code of conduct. His modes can be used to develop a universal code of conduct. Such a code postulates that one’s adaptation energy is finite and should not be destroyed through overwork. The model can be used to design achievement through the pleasant stress of fulfillment i.e. Eustress, without the harmful consequences damaging but inevitable stress or distress. The point of the code is not to abolish stress, but to master it. It is a matter of choosing not an undemanding lifestyle but a eustress fully rather than a distressfully damaging one (Selye 1983 P. 20) Alarm Reaction: - There is a alarm reaction of each phase. Shock Phase – immediate reaction Techycardia, loss of muscle tone, Decreased temperature, Decreased blood pressure. Counter shock phase – Rebound reaction Mobilisation of defense phase, enlarged adrenal cortex, Secretion of corticoid hormones, Death if stage persist Resistance Stage – Full adaptation to stressor improvement / disappearances of symptoms. Adrenal cortex becomes rich in corticoid hormones, if noxious persists, resistance and adoption are lost. Exhaustion stage – As any inanimate machine breaks down under constant wear a tear so does the human body burn out – Burn out, Disease, Death if stage persists. 2. Stimulus Overload/Under load Model – Proposed by suedfeld (1979). It links stress not to the quality of environment experiences, but also to the structure of experiences. Thus some events may be extremely aversive but may not involve stimulation levels outside the optimal zone. Conversely, events may be positive in nature but their very bulk makes them stressful. In other words too much of good thing may be stressful. A U – shaped relationship is hypothesized between stimulus load and stress, with stress being caused by both stimulus under load and overload. Too much of a good thing can also produce stress. As for instance stimulus over load. Stimulus overload may take many forms. It can either be quantitative i.e. too much to do or qualitutise i.e. too difficult to do. A pervasive form of stimulus overload is the information explosion due to easy availability of the electronic and print media. Mental or Physical work overload results whenever there is a time crunch and one tries to beat deadlines, or when a child has too much to learn in too short a time. Suedfeld has identified several factors considered important for the determination of the optimal level of stimulus load. While physiological arousal is crucial, personality variables such as locus of control, cognitive complexity and extroversion – introversion play an important role in the evaluation of the level of stimulation considered optimal by the person. Other determination is age and educational level. 3. Optimal Information Flow and Mood Model: Proposed by Hamilton (1981). It is along the same lines as stimulus overload/under load model. It posits the same type of U-shaped relationship between stress and stimulation. An additional aspect in Hamilton’s mode is the proposed relationship between optimal information flow and mood. Positive moods are an outcome of optimal information; negative moods reflect a mismatch between what is considered the optimal level and the actually availability stimulation. Negative moods will impact behavior negatively. However human beings are not totally in the hands of environmental stimulations. The susceptibility to such negative loads is monitored by what are called attention Regulators (Ars.) These Ars act to either augment or reduce the information available. The important point is that they are cognitive mechanisms and are under the voluntary control of the individual. It is therefore clear that if one is bored, in fact bored to death, one should use ones Ars to self regulate one’s experiences for instance. One can find challenge in one’s job, look around and one wills many jobs that demand ones attention. If a party is getting boring and one cannot leave it because it is a celebration called by the boss, do not keep grumbling. One should circulate among the guests and may be able to have a conversation with someone who is extremely interesting. Boredom is therefore as much due to one’s own frame of mind as it is to environmental conditions. One always has the take it or leaves it option. However it should be remembered that while boredom or its other extreme, information overload could be aversive and stressful, there is a middle level, which is just right for a person. Each one has his/her own optimal level. 4. Cognitive Model of Stress – The cognitive mode of stress is proposed by Lazarus and Flokman (1984) who define stress as a particular relationship between the person and the environment that is appraised by the person as taxing or exceeding his or her resources and endangering his or her well being. On the basis of both laboratory and filed studies, Lazarus and Folk man have evolved a model of stress incorporating three major issues. (a) Primary Appraisal – The conditions that determine the perception of any event, i.e. the process of primary appraisal. Considering that stress may have either positive or negative effects, the authors have classified event perception as being either irrelevant or having no implications for the person’s well being and stressful. The last may lead to harm or less, threat or challenge. These conditions may stem from the person or from the situations. Thus an event which goes against the person’s commitments is more likely to be perceived as being stressful than one, which has no relevance. Role conflict would lead to role stress only if the person is equally committed to both roles. Similarly events that are novel, unpredictable, ambiguous and which occur at crucial moment’s (Such as a relocation just prior to an important exam) would be perceived as more stressful than an event characterized by the opposite. (b) The second issue is related to how the person deal with the situation once it has been perceived as being stressful, or the process of secondary Appraisal, which determines the nature of coping to be adopted. Two types of coping are possible; emotion focused coping or problem-focused coping. The choice depends on the resources available to the person – health and energy resources, beliefs about control over the environment and problem solving skills, social skills and material resources. (c) The third issue focuses on the outcomes of stress. These refer to the pattern of reaction that defines the presence of stress. These may range from emotional experiences, motor manifestation, and alterations in adaptive functioning to physiological reactions. A combination of these is also possible. The exact nature of the reaction will depend on the nature of the secondary appraisal or the particular coping strategy decided upon. 5. Person Environment Fit Model: Person environment (P-E) fit model advocated by French Rodgers and Cobb (1974) deals with how the characteristics of the person and those of the environment affect the well-being of the person. The salient features are as follows: 1. Needs – Supplies fit and abilities – Demands Fit – The first refers of the degree of commensuration between the needs of the person and the supplies provided by the environment to fulfill those needs. For instance the number of achievement oriented opportunities provided by the environment to fulfill one’s need for achievement. The second type of fit refers to that between demands of the environment and the ability of the person to meet those demands. P-E fit refers to both the amount of fit between what the person expects from the environment can meet those needs, and the requirements demanded by the environment and the degree to which the person is able to cope with those demands. Both kinds of misfits may act as stressors. 2. Objective Fit Vs subjective fit – The theory proposes a distinction between objective and subjective fit. The former includes measures of the P and the E free of the bias introduced by the person, while the latter includes this bias. This leads to an objective P and an objective E as well as subjective P and objective P is called the accuracy of self-assessment. Correspondence between the objectives E subjective P is called the accuracy of self-assessment. Correspondence between the objective and subjective E denotes contact with reality cognitive distortions produce discrepancies between the objective and subjective and subjective components of fit. It is this subjective fit which causes strain leading to illness various types of P-E relationships are hypothesized including the V-Shaped relationship (Where minimum strains is seen when P=E) the asymptotic relationship (excess of P, but not a deficit or an excess of E can lead to strain) and the linear relationship (where in the absolute amount of P in relation to E has linear effect on strain.) A strong point of the theory is that measurement methodology for the P-E fit is provided. By using commensurate items for both P and E fairly reliable measure can be obtained however problems of farming the items, their placement and scale contamination still plague the researcher.

There are some yogic theory and explanations about stress. They have not been given exactly as models of stress but we can consider them as yogic models of stress. They are following: -

According to Bhagavad-Gita - Bhagavad-Gita the yoga sastra, presents the whole process of stress its origin development, aggravation and repercussions in two dramatic narration of chapter 02. /;k;rks fo"k;kUiqal lM+XLrs "kwitk;krs As l`XMkrlUtk;rs dke% dkEkRdks?kks · fHktk;rs AA62AA The man dwelling on sense objects develops attachment for them; from attachment springs up desire, and from desire (unfulfilled) ensues anger. Øks?kk)ofr lEeksg% lEeksgkRLe`fr foHkzHk% A Le`frHkza’kkn cqf)uk’kks cqf)uk’kkRiz.k’;fr AA 63AA From anger arises infatuation, from infatuation confusion of memory; from confusion of memory loss of reason, and from loss of reason one goes to complete ruin. This dramatic narrations matches with the description of patanjail’s comprehensive concept of kleshas.
According to Patanjali :- vfo/kkfLerkjkxnws "kkfHkfuos’kk% Dys’kk% AA3AA Ignorance, I feeling, liking disliking and fear of death are the pains. Thinking an imbalance from the perfect state is Aivdya. Limitations start right there we get into a repeated thinking loop and develop attachment towards that thought. Ego or Asmita is a result of this crystallized imbalance. Attachment to ‘I’ through is Imminent. Egocentric personalities are characterized by strong obsessions, ambitions, likes and dislikes. Emotional imbalances emerge out of them as up surge often. Else if they get suppressed, they percolate to the physical level resulting in heart attacks or nerve shattering diseases when emotional out bursts like anger continue we are infatuated and obsessed, losing all discrimination power and act from instinctive level. This Patanjali called as Abhinivesha, a state of help less ness, constriction, slavery or bondage that is the grossest manifestation of stress (Vivekananda Kendra Patrika). And to reduce the Kleshas Pantanjali said that Those Kleshas are reducible by involution when they are subtle. And the modification of the Kleshas are reducible through meditation.
Koshas and stress relationship – Stress also effects on the level of different koshas. When a person suffering from imbalance of neuro endocrine system, this stress affects the physical body or Annamaya Kosha and results in Vyaadhi (Casuing) disease. And when the person has imbalance of Ida Pingla its related to vital body or Pranayama Kosha and this stress results in breathing haphazardness etc. Emotional imbalance and mental disturbance affects the Astral body or Manomaya Kosha and cause dominance of likes and dislikes in action. When person is actively in tune with cosmic laws this stress effects on wisdom body or Vignamaya Kosha and result in sligh decrease in bliss minimum stress. And if a person is in the state of non-thinking, no activity or silence phas of mind, it effects the Bliss body or the Ananadamya Kosha and brings a stress free or Absolute Blissful State.

Sl.No	Koshas or Sheath	Body	Stress	Result
1	Annamaya Kosha	Physical	Imbalance of Neuro endocrine System.	Stress reaction (Vyaoodhi) causing disease.
2	Pranayama Kosha	Vital	Ida-Pingla Imbalance	Breathing Haphazardness
3	Monomaya Kosha	Astral	Emotional imbalance,mental disturbance.	Dominance of likes and dislikes in action.
4	Vignanmaya Kosha	Wisdom	Activity in tune with cosmic laws	Slight decrease in bliss minimum stress
5	Anandamaya Kosha	Bliss	Non thinking, No activity, silence Phas	No stress Absolute Bliss

So these explanations could be considered as yogic models of stress. Because these explanations or theory explained the whole process of stress in a systematic yogic way.

Chapter III

YOGA PRACTICES

On the basis of last chapter we can say that yogic practices are helpful in reducing stress symptoms, now we will see how they play their role in reducing stress symptom.- Physiological aspects of Yoga – It has been stated that daily practices of Yoga would help a person to maintain a perfect homeostasis of the body and mind throughout his life. In fact the practices of the Hatha Yoga and meditation tends to bring about normally, in our psycho physiological functions. It has been claimed that such persons would be less prone to psychosomatic imbalance resulting usually from stress and strain of life.Yogic techniques plays significance role in the management of many stress and related problems. According to Udupa (2000). Shirshana is more useful in the case of those who are suffering from too much of psychic stress, especially personality like mesomorphs. Here we will present some specific yogic techniques and their effect on stress.

Asanas and stress: -Asanas greatly influence the functioning of the endocrine system. We know the important role the endocrine glands play during stress adaptation by secreting the stress hormones. Asanas bring about harmony in the functions of the various other bodily systems, which are closely inter-woven, such as the circulatory, nervous, respiration and digestive systems. Any disruption in the proper working relationship between these systems results in loss of health and body efficiency. Here again all these system play an active role during the body’s adaptation to stress.The subtle influence asanas bring about in the body is in the pranayama Kosha or the energy sheath. Pranamaya Kosha is pervaded by what is known as bioplasma or bioluminescence or Prana. This energy travels in and around the body in specific pathways or the nadis. This nadis become blacked and prana gets congested in certain areas. When this happens it leads to physical and mental disorders. Prana is also intimately connected to the mind. The free flow of prana brought about by asanas, leads to mental equilibrium and calmness. The practice of asana brings about mental and emotional equanimity by slowing down the breath and by deepening the inhalation. Finally, the practice of asana with body and breath awareness, keeps the mind off tension and worry, atleast during the practice. However the temporary relaxation achieved during the practice, gradually builds up to bring permanent changes in one’s mental and emotional make up. As our mental attitude is reflected in our body in the same way physical poise achieved during the practice of asanas has a corresponding effect on the mind. Some asanas like pawanmuktasana group of asanas releases excess of wind and acidity from the body. It also removes or release muscular tension from all over the body, from the head to the toes, and balances the prana in the body. This in turn helps to keep the body balanced and stress free throughout the day.
Pranayama and Stress: -Prana and mind exert on influence on each other. When the pranas are restless, they affect the mind and vice versa. By controlling the pranas through the practice of pranayama the restlessness of the mind is automatically controlled.- Nadi Shodhana pranayama induces calmness and tranquility in several ways. It clears all the pranic passages of any blockages, due to the presence of toxins. It equalizes the flow of prana in the Ida and Pingala network of nadis. By equalizing the flow of the prana in the ida and Pingala nadis nadi shodhana rectifies imbalance due to the habitual predominance of the sympathetic nervous system, which is the result of chronic on going stress. The balancing of the flow of prana has a positive influence on the body’s stress response activity and helps to keep levels of stress and tension within a normal range.- While practicing Ujjayi pranayama, a slight pressure is exerted on the carotid sinuses. In a stress conditions, the blood pressure rises as the heart betas faster. The pressure on the corotid bodies brought about in Ujjayi pranayama helps to slow down the heart beats, Either as a stress aid in a temporary stress full situation or as a long term therapy, Ujjayi is an in valuable practice Ujjayi is a standard adjunct to Yoga therapy for blood pressure, heart problems anxiety and many other stress problems.- Bhramari is very useful for removing mental and emotional tension, anxiety and hysteria, Bhastrika and kapalbhait are essential for revitalizing the exhausted and dpressed nervous system. Bhastrika revitalizes the sympathetic nervous system while kapalbhaint tones up the parasympathetic nervous system.
Shatkarmas : – Hatha Yoga traditionally prescribes the Shatkarmas or six ways of purifying the body. Neti, dhauti, basti, Naili, Kapalbhati and trataka. These are not mutually exclusive, but are practices in different combinations to suit the specific nature of disorder and individual need. How these practices helps to remove stress in following ways.Neti – Neti is a process of cleansing the nasal passages. And the practice of neti has a subtle influences on the various nerves which end in the nasal passages, such as the olfactory bulb and other adjacent nerves, which innervate the eyes, ears, nose and throat, This has a soothing influence on the brain and can help to relieve such stress related ailments as migraine, asthma, depression, tension headaches, insomnia and tiredness.
Yognidra and Stress: -Yoga nidra appears to work by changing the neurohumoral reactivity to stress creating somatic conditions essentially opposite to those prompted by sympathetic over activity. During yoga nidra the organs system of the body attain deep, physiological rest and the body’s powerful, inherent, regenerative mechanism are set in motion. As a result, the body, tissues are physiologically braced against stress. Becoming less susceptible too its harmful influence. The profound experience of muscular, mental and emotional relaxation attainable in Yoga nidra creates a balance of psychic and vital energies within the nadis in the body. The free flow of these energies forms the basis of optimal physical and mental health.
Meditation (Dhyana): - Dhyana is one of the most important components of patanjali integrated practice of yoga. At the same time one should realize that it is difficult to master the technique of meditation. Meditation is the art of living and being in the world. Meditation is not a religious word. It has no religious connotations. It is a practical, systematic method, which allows one. To understand himself at all levels of being, to understand his environment completely, to eliminate and prevent inner conflicts, to obtain a tranquil and peaceful mind. Meditation is effective because it eliminates the greatest cause of stress – loneliness we usually think of loneliness as wanting or needing to have some relationship with another person. But this is only a superficial symptom of the real thing. The lonely person is one who does not know himself and thus he does not know his purpose in life. So the important goal of life remains unknown. Clinical experience has shown that the most important source of emotional distress does not know one self.Thus yogic meditation may be recommended in all stressful states or in all cases with increased sympathetic activity, such as hypertension and cardiovascular disorders. However there are some norms for practice like mind must be calm, body should be stedy etc.
Karma yoga and stress: - Karma Yoga is the yoga of action or work. Karma yoga helps to bring peace and equanimity into one’s stress filled life. Karma yoga develops will power. The importance of will power in managing stress is often overlooked will power can be defined as the ability to motivate, mobilze and harmonize all of one’s activities for the attainment of a definite purpose. The Gita has defined karma Yoga as efficiency in action. This total absorption in the work at hand lead to great will power and the unleashing of the powers within the mind. The whole mind and body becomes integrated and tuned to a high degree of sensitivity and it is during work and other activities that we can recognize our mental problems.Karma yoga is a means to clean out the mind of phobias, problems, fears and all other disturbing factors, which give rise to a stress situation. During karma yoga a person has to face all types of experience, whether good or bad. From these experiences, we learn about our self our abilities and hang-ups.

Chapter IV

YOGA AND STRESS

Mankind has always tried to attain peace and happiness through all available means. The urgent of getting an ideal method of attaining mental peace become great in view of the tremendous increase in the stress and strain of life especially in the urban areas. In UK one in every 10 persons in the age group of 30-50 years is a victim of stress related disease; whereas in USA. Cardiovascular stress disorder seems to be the most few years what is more alarming is that the incidence is still increasing and is effecting more and more of younger generation. It is gratifying to note that more and more powerful drugs are being produced and marketed for the benefits of such patients. However the use of such powerful drugs has its own drawbacks such as drug dependency, drug addition, and toxic manifestation if used for a long time. Hence in recent years there has been an intense search for non-medical measures not only to have control over this disease but also to prevent the development of these disorders. If we look into the ancient past of mankind we can easily find out some of the methods described by earlier philosophers, sages and spiritual leaders for maintaining tranquility of mind. Amongst them yoga seems to be the earliest and the most effective method for providing peace and tranquility of mind. However there are several other method, which have developed in various parts of the world and all these have probably derived their inspiration from yoga in the early periods. Thus in the far east; especially in Japan Zen meditation seems to be a well developed method for attaining mental peace. In the Middle East where Islamic culture has been flourishing during the last 12 centuries the control of mental activity was done through the Sufi way. It appears that even the Sufi way might have gone from India. The main Sufi technique includes prayer, which is nothing but another form of ‘Bhakti Yoga’. Recently in Europe and especially in Germany antigenic training as developed by Schulz and his colleagues became a popular method of achieving mental relaxation, Jacbson in USA developed a technique of producing effective muscular relaxation, since he felt that this would ultimately lead to relaxation of mind also. In the spite of availability of all these method in various part of the world one must realize that the basic principles involved in the development of these techniques are those of yoga. Each one of these techniques has highlighted only one or the other aspect of yoga either for the relaxation of the body or of the mind. There for techniques are not complete. To derive full benefit of yoga one must follow in principles the full eight-fold yogic discipline described by patanajali about 2000 years ago. (All these techniques had a roof in yoga which originated in India). According to panatanjali; “To block the patterns of consciousness is Yoga” and for this Patanjali has recommended eight stages (Astanga Yoga) of Yogic discipline. They are following :-

Yama (Restraints)
Niyama (observance/Fixed rules)
Asana (Physical Postures)
Pranayama (Breathing control)
Pratyahara (Withdrawal of sense organs)
Dharna (Concetration)
Dhyana (Meditation)
Samadhi (Smadhi, attainment of super consequences)

The results of practices can be enhanced much more if one follows all the recommended much more if one follows all the recommended stages in every day life. It may not always possible to follow them very strictly in every day life but one should try one’s best to get better results. Yamas are five

1. Ahimsa or non-injury

2. Satya or Truthfulness – In all the dealings of life.

3. Asteya or non-stealing of any thing in life.

4. Brahmacharya or celibacy. Following the path of Brahma.

5. Aparigrana or non-possession keeping one’s requirement to the bar minimum.

Niyamas are also five: -

1. Shaucha or cleanliness, of body and mind.

2. Santosh or contentment even under adverse circumstances. So that he/she can concentrate and meditate withoutony obstacle to achive his goal.

3. Tapas or austerity with regare to food, exercise, rest and integrity in ones character.

4. Swadhyaya or intensive study/self study or extensive study of the subjects in which one wants speciulization.

5. Ishvara pranidhana or surrender to god. In order to attain peace and a sense of humility it is always better to dedicate the actions and the fruits of our actions to god Almighty. Yama and Niyama are to be fully under stood and followed as for as possible by everyone interested in the practice of yoga. As regards Asana, Pranayam and Dhyan it would be much better and safer if one learns them from trained yoga teaches directly rather then from published articles or books. All these should be published very carefully and regularly failing which they may do more harm than good, so first one should learn the correct techniques from the preceptor and then perform them regularly in the morning or evening on empty stomach should follow the same routine. If one starts doing the practice with firm determination from the very beginning then it becomes a regular habit and integral part of the routine. And later on gives full benefits.

Since there are different people with different physical and mental constitutions, then should be different methods to be adopted by them for serving the humanity at large. Though there are many kinds of yoga.

Three of them are more important

(1) Karma yoga or yoga of action

(2) Bhakti yoga or yoga of Love and Devotion and

(3) Jnanu yoga or yoga of knowledge.

Any of these three principle pathways may be followed to achieve the goal of one’s life and without expecting anything in return which would benefit him personally. In this connection the ‘Bhagavad-Gita’ is the most authoritative text, which gives in detail the philosophical and practical aspects of these yogic practices, which have received universal approbation through out the world

Yogic practices not only help in reversing the progress of these diseases but also improve the resistance of the body at the psycho – physiological level. Such non – medical measures should be adapted to overcome the stressful situations and to maintain an alert mental state. This would largely avoid serves mental depression resulting there is an urgent need for popularizing the use of various types of yogic practices, throughout the world. There are already many organizations such as Transcendental meditation centers of Mharshi Mahesh yogi in USA. Un and Switzerland, Ashrum, of Bihar School of Yoga establish by Swami styananda and Niranjanananda all over the world, and many other similar centers, which are doing a useful service for the humanity as large.

There are many types of yogic practices for the promotion of good health. Amongst them Raja yoga which mainly consists of the practice of yoga postures, breathing exercise and meditation is the most popular one.Though there are several research evidences related with the effects of yogic practices on stress and related problems, which prove that yoga is a beneficial tool for the management of stress and related problems. It has been found in a study (Udupa & Singh, 1975) that regular practices of yoga builds up the personality at all levels. The beauty of a yoga is that it helps to transfer the total personality, physically, mentally, emotionally and above all spiritually. Moorthy (1982) had concluded that because of the slow gentle movement and static nature of asanas improve the muscle tone as well as flexibility. As we know that the muscle tone is very much influenced by the emotions as they disturb the hypothalamus, which creates stress in the body. Weinstein and Smith (1992) have found a significant reducation in sympathetic arousal and the subjects had shown better physical and psychological rest after isometric squeeze relaxation. In another study (Keuning 1968) found that alternate nostril breathing regulates the sympathetic and Para-sympathetic branches of autonomic nervous system Johnson (1992) had found improves autonomic stability, decreased anxiety and also found better resistence to stress in those people who practices meditation Mulay (1987) has concluded his studies that mantras will help to invoke higher consciousness and influence the whole life for promotion and influence the whole life for promotion of health and happiness. Yoga nidra has been acclaimed the best practice the release all kinds of tension. Dr. A. K. Ghosh (1998) has found alfa waves dominance in the brain which we get very less in normal life. Alfa brain wave is the mark of complete relaxation in all levels.

As is known that anxiety, depression, hostility, interpersonal sensitivity, phobic anxiety, etc are the source of creating stress. These sources can be reduced through the regular practices of yogic techniques like asanas, pranayama yoga nidra and meditation (Sinha, 1999, Raj Hansh, 1999 Kumar, 2000, Thakur, 2000).

Chapter - V

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

As it is discussed earlier the present work is a theoretical type of psychological study. So here the purpose of the present fieldwork was to review the different mode contemporary Psychological models and Yogic models of stress and to investigate effectiveness of yogic techniques for the management of stress and related problems. The works done in this connection have been presented in details in four earlier chapters. Chapter I deal with the general concept of stress and relevance of the problem. As we know that stress has become the part of human life due to modernization and competitiveness of the life situations.

Now days a very big number of every age groups people (male or female) are suffering from stress. Stress has been experienced since time immemorial, but its toll is higher than ever before. When we analyses visits to doctors 75-90% are for stress related (Pareek 1999). Almost every one admits that they are experiencing some degree of stress and that stress is certainly a problem for modern society. Stress is a problem because the effects of stress are very destructive to health, productivity and the expression of human potential. Today stress is being considered as one of the prime cause disease. There is a very longest of diseases such as blood pressure, cardiovascular diseases and asthma, which are known as stress born diseases.

This chapter also deals the etiology or causes of stress. And the relationship of stress with yoga. According to Yoga, stress brings imbalance at the mental, physical or emotional level. And the basic aim of the yogic approach towards stress is not to deal with the manifest symptoms (like fear anger) but rather to eliminate the root cause. Yogic methods of stress management include the practice of asana, pranayama, meditation Yoga Nidra etc.

Chapter II deals with the different Psychological models of stress given by different psychologists. A model gives a holistic picture of the phenomenon under study. Thus a model of stress presents a visual image of the stress phenomenon in totality; the causal factors, the symptoms and the process and the end result. In this chapter Psychological models of stress has been dealt. They are presented here as a summary chart.

Summary Chart of Models of Stress

S.N.	Models	Emphasis	Implications	Stress management
1	General Adaptation Model by Selye (1950)	Stress is necessary for biological adoption Stage of the stress response	Understanding immediate shorttermand long term effects of stress	Preventing distress and promoting esutress by taking each event a challenge and not controlling stress effects to avoid eshustion.
2	Overload Under Load model By Sued Feld (1979 Aslo Load of Information Model	Events become stressful either because of under or over arousal	Understanding that stress is dependent on individual stress tolerance levels	Know ones stress tolerance level and program one’s activities accordingly under arousal over arousal
3	Optimal information flow and Mood Model. By Hamilton (1981)	Non-optimal stimulation produces negative moods such as anger depression anxiety	Under standing that one can optimize stimulation arousal levels.	Control negative thinking and dysfunctional thought process. Think positive Learn to use one’s ARS
4	Cognitive Appraisal Model. Proposes by Lazarus Folkman 1984	Perception of individual determines stress. Perception also determines how one copes with stressor.	Understanding the factors underlying stress perception.	Decide one’s prior it; be protective instead of reactive. Learn problem Solving coping
5	Person Environment Fitmodel by F. Rodgers (1974)	Stress depends on the degree of nonfat between the person an environment. Needs supplies fit. Abilities Demands fit.	Understanding that both actual and or perceived discrepancies between personal resources and environmental demands cases stress.	If discrepancies are actual. Make need level more realistic. Increase skill level and variety. Career planning. Realistic assessment to reduce mismatch between objective and sub person.

In this chapter on attempt has been made to consider the different Yogic Views as Yogic Models of Stress. Bhagvadgit’s concept about mechanism of stress in chapter – 2 Sloka 62,63 can be consider as Asakti Model. It explains that how asakti (attachment) leads to stress. Similarly Patanjali’s coprehensive concept of how Kleshas in chapter II of yoga sutras deas how kleshas causes stress. We can call it as Klesha model of stress. And the relationship 0between Koshas and stress has also been dealt.

In chapter III the role of different yogic practices (such as asana, pranayama, meditation yoga nidra & Karma Yoga) in the management of stress & relates problems have been dealt.

The practice of asana with body and breath awreness keeps the mind off tension and worry. Asanas bring about harmony in the functioning of the various bodily systems. Nadi Shodhana pranayama induces calmness and tranquility. Pranayama like Bharmari, Bhastrka and Kapalbhati removes mental and emotional tension anxiety etc. Meditation is effective because it eliminates the greatest cause of stress loneliness. Yoga Nidra relaxes the mind through relaxing the body and the karma yoga is a means to clean out the mind of phobias, problems, fears and all other disturbing factors, which give, rise to a stress situation.

Chapter IV deals with different studies and findings revealed by different researchers on effects of yogic practices on stress or related problems. There are many empirical support available for the Yogic Management of Somatic disorders cause by stress (Moorthy 1982, Keuning 1968) and Psychological disorders provoked by stress (Jhonson 1992, Mulay 1987, Sinha 1999, Kumar 2000).

Lastly we can conclude that Yoga is very rich in its different techniques and can manage stress and its effects on physical and psychological well-being. Therefore, it is said that Yoga prevents human from the ill effects of stress, it cures the diseased personality and can promote one’s mental health.

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