Sivananda Yoga Sevashram, South Delhi
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Yoga & Psychotherapy
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| C H A P T E R – I |
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INTRODUCTION
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| Modern science of psychology and the ancient discipline of yoga have much in common. Both of them have originated from philosophy and they aim at understanding the human mind. The old Greek philosophers defined psychology as the study of soul or mind. Later on when psychology became an independent subject & experimental studies started in the field, it was defined as a study of conscious experiences as William James (1890) called it. Since then in effort to become an objective science psychologists started studying behavior and now it is considered as a science of human adjustment (Zimbardo, 1979). Similarly unlike the popular notion, Yoga is not a physical exercise. It is primarily the study of mind particularly of consciousness. In words of Swami Satyananda (2000), “Yoga is the science of mind. Instead of exploring the outer world like other sciences, Yoga is concerned with exploring the inner world and unleashing the power and knowledge contained within. It is the science of mental discipline and includes various methods of making the mind one-pointed.” In his yoga sutras Patanjali asserts that mind is the chief controller of actions & so the main aim of yoga is to control the mental modifications (Yogah Chitta Vritti nirodhah).
This leads to proper understanding of situations and awakening of what is called higher mind in yoga (Behanan 1937).
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| Not only psychology and Yoga have common subject matter, rather the modern humanistic approach (Maslow, 1954) and the cognitive approach (Gardener, 1985: Arnkoff & Glass, 1992) of contemporary psychology were well conceived in the yogic literature. As such it is no wonder that good many terms, constructs and mental phenomena like ego, intelligence, personality, mind and therapy have been used and described in length in both psychological and yogic literature. The question is whether these terms been used in the two disciplines in the same conceptual form.
As a student of yoga psychology, we notice that the psychological terms like those referred above have been used in yoga and psychology sometimes in similar and yet in much different way. Similarly the different states of consciousness have been described with different terminology. Jagrit, Swapna and Nidra for example, are described in yogic literature as different’ levels and aspects of consciousness (Swami Niranjanananda, 1998). Is it the same as levels of conscious, subconscious and unconscious mind in psychology? We must not ignore that the nature and approach of psychological and yogic studies are not the same. While psychology is a positive science, which believes in objective approach, yoga is both a positive and normative science and its methods are basically experiential. Yoga like psychology is concerned not only with normal human adjustment or making the neurotics and deviants socially and mentally normal rather it provides methods and Sadhanas to take normal persons to higher level, individual consciousness to transcendental or cosmic consciousness. The objective here is promotion of self-leading to life of bliss. Swami Rama (1983) says that, “Sincere practice of yoga leads to Samadhi, where the mind is transcended, and one becomes aware of the self and is united with it. This state is characterized by sat-chit-ananda or existence, consciousness and bliss. One expands one’s consciousness and becomes one with the ultimate reality.” Naturally the real conceptual meaning and use of the terms differ in the two disciplines. The interpretation of the terms like Buddhi (intelligence) and Ahamkara (ego) for example are distinctly different. So, confusions prevail when some comparative studies are made in the field of yoga psychology. |
| It is therefore essential that the mental phenomena, terms and constructs, which are used in yogic and psychological literature, are, explained in correct prospective. This may serve as a basis for taking up empirical studies and interpreting the results correctly in future. The present research has been undertaken to meet this gap in the available literature.
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| C H A P T E R – II
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MIND IN PSYCHOLOGY AND YOGA
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| MIND IN PSYCHOLOGY |
Mind in western psychology has been conceived in terms of mental process (specially the conscious mental processes). Feldman (1998) talked of the following three kinds of mental processes.
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| Cognitive mental processes: |
Cognition means knowledge, so all such mental processes which provide us knowledge of stimuli, situations and ideas come under this category. Sensation is the elementary and basic cognitive process which provides us simply an awareness of present stimulus in form of shape or size and basic identity. More complex are attention and perception. Similarly learning, remembering, imagination and thinking etc. are higher order cognitive processes in which we develop skills and knowledge regarding difficult situations and ideas.
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Affective mental processes:
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Affection refers to feeling and emotions. Not only we acquire knowledge through mental processes rather we also have the experience of pleasure and pain and of emotions like love, anger, hatred, jealousy etc. Some of these affective processes are of positive nature like pleasure, delight, love etc; and some others have negative nature like anxiety, jealousy, hatred, displeasure etc. For happy life we need having positive feelings and emotions. This is possible when we have positive cognitions and attitude.
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Conative Mental processes:
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Conations refer to action tendencies. So all desires and motivations constitute the conative mental processes. They are like mental forces which impel the individual to perform certain actions. They may be biogenic like hunger, thirst and sex or sociogenic like gregariousness or pugnacity which manifest in behaviour of living together and fighting each other. Similarly there can be psychological needs and motives like needs for achievement, recognition and power etc.
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Inter relationship between the mental processes:
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| The cognitive, affective and conative mental processes are very much inter related and inter-linked, so they influence each other and they function in inter woven manner. When we have for example perception (cognition) of a beautiful flower, it gives rise to an affective process of pleasure and happiness. Not only this it also gives rise to certain desires like purchasing or plucking the flower (conative process) and we do so. Thus the behaviour of plucking or purchasing a flower is preceded by all the three types of mental processes. So if we have to modify the behaviour of individual we can do it amicably by managing the mental processes behind them. The three processes may be presented through the following schema:
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| Stimulus | -----> | Cognitive process | -----> | Affective process
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| (Flower) | | (Knowledge of Flower) | (Feeling of happiness)
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| | | (Desire to pluck flower)
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| | | Behaviour
(Plucking of flower) |
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| Apart from this, it was Freud who talked of the importance of unconscious mind in psychology. There are different meanings of mind. Here, the meaning of mind is psyche or personality. Earlier it was believed that mind is unchangeable. It is constant from birth till death. Suleman and Prasad (1998) said that “in modern psychologists Freud was the first who studied mind scientifically”. He said that the nature of mind is dynamic and has many aspects. Here aspects are analyzed specially in conflicting situations. When the person gets stucked in more than one equal or opposite situations, different aspects of mind gets analyzed automatically. Chances of change in that person hopefully become more. In general mind has two aspects – the topographical aspect and the dynamic aspect.
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| Dynamic aspect of mind:
Freud was the first psychologist who studied the dynamic aspect of mind extensively Conflicts in basic instincts are solved by the dynamic aspect of mind. Brown says that “Dynamic aspect of mind means the agent through which conflicts arising in the instincts are worked out.”
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| The Dynamic aspect has three forces: |
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| The nature of all these three forces are different from each other, therefore conflicts go between them always. There conflicts go at the level of conscious, sub-conscious and unconscious level. Conflict plays important role in one’s normal or abnormal behaviour; therefore we find changes in one’s personality organization.
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According to Feldman (1998), the id is the raw, unorganized, inherited part of personality. Present from the time of the birth the sole purpose of the id is to reduce tension created by primitive drives related to hunger, sex, aggression and irrational impulses. There drives are fueled by “Psychic energy”, or libido, as Freud called it. The id operates according to the pleasure principle, in which the goal is the immediate reduction of tension and the maximumization of satisfaction. Unfortunately for the id- but luckily for the people and society- reality prevents the fulfillment of the demands of the pleasure principle in most cases. Instead the world produces constraints: we cannot always eat when we are hungry, and we can discharge our sexual arrives only when time and place and- partner are willing. To account for this fact of life, Freud suggested a second component of mind, which he called the ego.
The ego provides or buffer bet- means the id and the realities of the objectives, outside world. In contrast to the pleasure seeking nature of the id the ego operates according to the reality principle, in which instinctual energy is restrained in order to maintain the safety of the individual and helps integrate the person into society. In a sense then the ego is the “executive” of mind. It makes decisions, controls actions and allows thinking and problem solving of a higher order than the id can achieve. The ego is also the seat of higher cognitive abilities such as intelligence, thought fullness, reasoning and learning.
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The superego, the final mind structure to develop, represents the rights and wrongs of society as handed down by a person’s parents, teachers and other important figures. It becomes a part of mind when children learn right from wrong & continues to develop as people begin to incorporate into their own standards the broad moral principles of the society in which they live. The superego actually has two components, the conscience and the ego-ideal. The conscience prevents us from doing morally bad things, while the ego-ideal motivates us to do what is morally proper. The super-ego helps us to control impulses coming from the id, making our behavior less selfish and more virtuous.
Although on the surface the superego appears to be the opposite of the id, the two shares an important feature; both are unrealistic in that they don’t consider the practical realities imposed by society. Thus the superego pushes the person towards greater virtue. If left unchecked, it would create perfectionists, unable to make compromises that life requires, similarly, on unrestrained id would create a primitive, pleasure seeking, thoughtless individual seeking to fulfill every desire without delay. The ego then must compromise between the demands of the superego and the id, thereby enabling a person to resist some of the gratification sought by the id while at the same time keeping the moralistic superego in check so that it does not present the person from obtaining any gratification at all.
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| Topographical aspect of mind:
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| Suleman and Prasad (1998) have said that Freud has categorized topographical aspect of mind in three levels – conscious, subconscious and unconscious.
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| Conscious mind:
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| Conscious mind is that level of mind which is related with present. J.F. Brown says “the conscious mind is that segment of mind which is concerned with immediate awareness.” For example- when a student use to write the answers in examination he has complete knowledge of related questions that time. What ever we do in the present moment we have awareness of it and this present awareness according to Freud is a characteristic of the conscious mind.
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Subconscious mind:
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| Sub-conscious mind is the second level of the topographical aspect of mind. Desires and thoughts lie here. A person is not aware of these desires and thoughts instantly but after some introspection he becomes aware. For example, it can be said that when a student use to write down the answers in examination of are question he is unaware of the answers of another question, but when he read the next question slowly the answer to that question come in the present awareness, the answer before coming to the present awareness was in the subconscious mind. Therefore, the segment of mind where the readily recallable matter is located is called subconscious.
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Unconscious:
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Unconscious mind is the biggest part of the topographical aspect of mind. Just as the larger part of the iceberg in water is not visible, similarly we are unaware of the biggest part of our mind. Different psychologists have described unconscious mind in different ways. Aflatoon and Aristotle also have described about unconscious mind before Freud. Descartes and Liberitz also have described about unconscious mind.
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| Some psychologists have viewed that unconscious is that part of our mind where inactive and unuseful mental activities lie. These activities don’t have any importance but it was Freud who opposed it for the first time and said unconscious mind is not inactive, rather they are active and has effects on a person and his behaviour. Freud said that the unconscious basically consists of the repressed desires and conflicts, which greatly influence the behaviours of the individual. He described the concept of psychopathology of everyday life on the basis of this unconscious. In order to prove the existence of unconscious, Freud talked of number of proofs like hypnotic suggestion, somnambulism etc.
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| Therefore according to Brown, “unconscious is that segment of the mind which contains such experienced materials which we cannot recall at will but which may occur automatically and which we know is present in our mind through hypnosis and other experimental procedures.
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| Conclusion:
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| Hence, in psychology mind has been conceived in terms of the mental processes. It was Sigmund Freud who talked about levels of mind – conscious, subconscious and unconscious and also about dynamics of mind in terms of Id, Ego and Super ego. Freud said that the unconscious part of the mind influences the individual the most. He also said that there is a continuous struggle going on between the three forces of the mind, which results in unique behaviours.
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| MIND IN YOGA:In different Indian philosophies, different words have been used for mind. Yogavasistha mimansa uses the word “Manas” for mind. In samkhya and Vedanta the word “Antahkarana” is used for mind. In Patanjali Yoga “Chitta” has been used for mind. In samkbya, mind is categorized in three parts- manas, buddhi, & Ahamkara. In Vedanta mind is categorized in four parts – manas, buddhi, chitta and ahamkara. In Patanjali yoga however the mind is studied holistically and the term “chitta” is used to denote all the fluctuating and changing phenomenon of the mind. Theoretically the Yoga system is based on some tenants of Samkhya philosophy and it also assimilates teachings of Vedanta. According to the yogic system, mind is like a vast lake, on the surface of which arise many different kinds of waves, Deep within the mind is always calm and tranquil which goes to the consciousness gradually (Tigunait, 1983).
According to Taimni(1987), the yogic system conceives mind as having four aspects called Chitta, Manas, Buddhi and Ahamkara. Let us try to understand the significance of these four well known Sanskrit words which throw some light on the anatomy of the mind.
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Chitta:
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| According to Swami Satyasangananda (1998), Chitta is referred as memory. Under the influence of Sattva, the sense impressions contained within chitta recede, so that the consciousness remains undisturbed. Through the influence of Rajo guna, the Rajasik Samskaras are awakened in Chitta in the form of Vikalpa (imagination) and Viparayaya (false knowledge). In this state Chitta contains both types of Samskaras of knowledge and ignorance, passion and dispassion. When Tamas influences Chitta, undesirable Samskaras well-up. Thus the individual is clouded up by Vasanas (deep-rooted desires) pushing all the good Samskaras into obscurity. It’s most important modifications are the 5 kinds of “Fluctuations” (Vrittis) as accurate cognition, erroneous knowledge, conceptualization, sleep and memory; these must be stopped in order to actualize higher state of awareness.
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| According to Taimni (1987), Chitta may be considered as the image-making faculty of the mind. At the deeper levels the content of the mind at any moment can be anything which occupies the field of consciousness and is called Pratyaya in yogic terminology. Our ordinary thinking is done through mental images and the lower concrete mind is never free from such mental images. Even when we are engaged in abstract thinking as in mathematical deduction mere mental images are always present in the background of our mind and continue to change with the process of thinking. This aspect of the mind which enables it to form these mental images either through direct contact with objects in sensuous perceptions or through the faculties of memory or imagination is called Chitta. Chitta may therefore be simply defined as the image making faculty or capacity of the mind and is related to the content of the mind at any moment.
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| Manas:
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| According to Tigunait (1983), Manas is the rational mind which analyses things sees and perceives, in relation to the interaction of the subtle awareness with the external, manifest, gross awareness. It is just information processing with the help of Gyanendriyas, Buddhi and Karmendriyas. Because of this proximity to sensory functions it is viewed as a sense. In the Brihadaranyak Upnishad (1.5.3), its operational modes are said to be desires (kama), volition (Samkalpa), doubt (Vicikitsa), faith (Shradha), lack of faith (Ashradha) shame (hri), knowledge (dhi) and fear (bhi).
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Taimni (1987) said that Manas in that aspect of mind which underlies the succession of mental images. The mental image present in the mind at any moment is always changing. A continuous stream of mental images is passing through the mind of every individual and two images in two successive moments are exactly the same. That aspect of mind which has to do with the relentless succession and change of these mental images is called Manas. Manas therefore indicates the dynamic aspect of the mind as compared with the static aspect indicated by Chitta.
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| Buddhi:
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| Buddhi is the feminine form of word Buddha related with enlightenment and is one of the key concepts of the tradition in yoga, Samkbya, Vedanta & as well as other philosophies. In Samkbya, the first evolute of prakriti is Mahat or Buddhi. Mahat means the great one. This is the state of union of purusha and prakriti. Through Prakriti is unconscious material substance, it seems to be conscious and realizes itself as conscious because of the presence of conscious self. Mahat is the state which Prakriti receives light from purusha, the fountain of light and sees itself and this process of seeing is the beginning of manifestation of the universe. The individual counterpart of this cosmic state, Mahat is called buddhi, the intellect, the finest aspect of a human being that has the capacity to know the entire personality in its full purity. Buddhi is the immediate effect of Prakriti resulting from the guidance of Purusha, therefore Buddhi is the evolute closest to purusha. The word Buddhi is translated as intellect, but actually Buddhi is derived from the root Bodh which means to be aware of, to know, to have experience of. Therefore buddhi means some recognized experience and this aspect of recognition happens through intellect. However intellect is a broad description of Buddhi. The word Buddhi actually means “being aware of”. This aspect of awareness analyses the present situations and circumstances and compares them with the past memories and decides that this experience is correct or incorrect, right or wrong (Trigunait, 1983)
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According to Taimni (1987), Buddhi is the light of consciousness which illuminates the mental images. Mind in its aspects of chitta and mana is considered to be jada or insentient in yogic psychology and it is only when it is illuminated by the light of consciousness that the mental images present in the mind are considered to acquire meaning and significance. That is why the mind in its more limited meaning is symbolized by the sun which is self illuminating or shines by its own light. It should be noted that the word Buddhi is used there in a specific sense, as the light of consciousness illuminating the mental images and not in the sense of viveka, the faculty of discrimination. This light of consciousness referred to in the present context is like the different light of the sun is not seen directly but it is there and brings out from each object its characteristic colour because it contains within itself all the colours in integrated state.
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| Buddhi is the power or faculty of perception which relates the subject and object. The permeation of the object or mental image by the subject or the illumination of the mind by consciousness is brought about through Buddhi. Buddhi is a spiritual element in the make-up of the mind. It is related directly to the spirit, in fact the projection of the spirit in the realm of the mind which is a still lower expression of the spirit.
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Ahamkara:
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Tigunait (1983) said that Ahamkara literally means “I-maker”. This is the Ego or principle of Individuation. In samkhya philosophy, it is regarded as one of the eight primary evolutes of nature and thus stands for a whole evolutionary category (tattva), In the conscious state or Jagriti ego operates through the gross body i.e. the senses and thinking mind. In the sub-conscious state or Swapna, the ego operates through the astral body & dream. In deep sleep or sushupti, the ego retires into seed state in the casual body, but in meditation it is in the form of inner awareness. Ahamkara is so deeply embedded that it even remains through the stages of Savikalpa Samadhi.
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| According to Taimni (1987), Ahamkara, the fourth aspect of mind is the egoic centre from which the light of consciousness illuminating the mind is projected. We generally refer to it as the ‘I’ the pivot round which our mental life revolves. Ahamkara is generally associated in the mind of the layman with egotism or pride but this is not its real, basic meaning in philosophy. Ahamkara is really the centre or seat of the individualized consciousness, the very basis of our life as a separate individual. It is through this spiritual centre, that the universal spirit or Paramatma expresses itself as an individual spirit or Atma or Purusha as he is called in yogic terminology. On the one hand it constricts and limits the unbounded and infinite reality which exists eternally in its background, and on the other it provides the very basis of the life of the monad as a separate individual. If there were no Ahamkara or I-ness, there would be no Monad or individual spirit.
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| Conclusion: |
| According to Tigunait (1983) then again there has been a division of mind as pure or higher and impure or lower mind. The impure mind is a subject to desires ambitions, ego and follows the sense objects. It is subject to different cravings, it seeks fulfillment in the world around us where as the pure mind is just luminous, it does not seek any external stimulation or experience. Here is a saying that “there is nothing new under the sun”. This statement actually relates to the pure mind. The experiences of past, present and future are all combined within the pure mind.
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Taimni (1987) said that if we examine our mental life and analyze carefully our mental operations we all discover to our surprise that the four aspects above, namely Chitta, Manas, Buddhi and Ahamkara are present in every mental expression. We always find mental images in our minds. These images are changing all the time. It is the light of our consciousness present on the physical plane in the form of ordinary awareness which illuminates there mental images and imparts meaning and significance to them. All these mental images which constitute the basis of our experiences are centered in and co-ordinate by our ‘I’ the centre of our individuality. This is the anatomy of mind.
A day today example of Manas, Buddhi, Chitta and Ahamkara can be given as on seeing a chair, a person cogitates “What is it?” What is it?” This function of deliberation action is Manas. Then he searches within & recalls some past impressions according to it with this recollection he cognizes the object as “This is a chair”. This function of determination is Buddhi. The function of recollection is Chitta. With the knowledge “This is a chair” arises the knowledge “I know the chair”. This function of egoism is Ahamkara.
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| C H A P T E R – III |
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INTELLIGENCE IN PSYCHOLOGY AND YOGA
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| INTELLIGENCE IN PSYCHOLOGY
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| Right from the beginning till now psychologists have tried to define intelligence. There are number of approaches made to define intelligence in the field psychology. Many such approaches to define intelligence have been discussed by Suleman (1999), which are as follows:-
Intelligence - an ability to adapt: In this approach intelligence was conceived as an ability to adjust. Adjustment is a process though which a person establishes a balance between his needs and external situation. So persons who have more success in adjustment where said to be more intelligent and vice versa. Advocating intelligence as an ability to adjust wells said, “Intelligence is the property of recombining our behavior pattern so as to act better in novel situations. Similarly Pinter defined intelligence by saying” the ability of the individual to adapt himself adequately to relatively new situations in life is called intelligence”.
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| Intelligence - an ability to learn:
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| This approach is of the opinion that intelligence is an ability to learn- person who learn a compiler subject quickly is said to of having more intelligence where as persons who are unable to learn quickly are conceived as lower in intelligence. In this context Ebbinghaus said, intelligence is the ability to learn or to profit by past experience.
Intelligence - an ability to think: In this approach intelligence has been defined as an ability to think. It is believed that an intelligent person solves a problem here efficiently and quickly than an idiot. In this regard Terman Said, “Intelligence is the ability to carry an abstract thinking. Similarly Barret says, “Intelligence is the ability demanded in the solution of problem which require comprehension and use of symbols.”
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| Intelligence - a global capacity:
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| According to this approach intelligence is a group of different kinds of abilities. This global capacity helps learning, memorizing, thinking and adjusting. As electric current manifests some where in light, some where in air, somewhere in fire etc. Similarly intelligence manifests sometimes in learning, sometimes in thinking and sometimes in adjustment. One of the most important definitions, supporting this approach, is given by Wechsler as intelligence is the aggregate or global capacity of an individual to act purposefully, to think rationally and to deal effectively with his environment.” Similarly Stoddard said.” Intelligence is the ability to undertake activities that are characterized by difficulty, complexity, abstractness, and economy, adaptive ness to a goal, social value and emergence of original.”
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| On the basis of above discussed approaches it can he concluded that intelligence is a group of abilities, not a simple ability. It helps the individual to adjust in various situations, in reasoning, in proper thinking.
In order to find out what people believe intelligence is Sternberg et al (1981) asked both experts and laypeople about their ideas of intelligence. Laypeople viewed intelligence as three general sets of abilities – practical problem, verbal ability and social competence. Practical problem solving, for most people, includes the ability to reason logically, to see different aspects of a problem to keep an open mind. Verbal ability includes skills such as speaking clearly, being knowledgeable, reading widely and having a large vocabulary. Social competence includes ability to admit mistakes and of social conscience. All experts, on the other hand, agreed on the first two sets of abilities but instead of social competence, talked of practical intelligence, which consists of such ability as being able to size up situations, knowing how to achieve goals. So, both, laypeople and experts conceived intelligence as a global capacity.
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| Regarding structure of intelligence Darley et al (1991) said that there are two different approaches that give a full picture of intelligence. At one extreme, there is one approach, which proposes that intelligence consists of two kinds of factors. The most important by far is a general factor, ‘G’ for general intelligence and the specific or ‘S’ factor for specific intelligence. The higher the value of ‘G’, the more intelligent a person is. The ‘S’ factor is highly specific to particular domains of knowledge (Spearman, 1923). According to this approach, the higher someone’s level of ‘G’, the better that person should be on any test intelligence i.e. the person should score equally well on tests of verbal ability as well as quantitative ability. Though people often are better at some things than at others, so me needs some minimal notion of specific factors in addition to the notion of the general intelligence.
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| At the other extreme are those psychologists who argue. Instead, people can be very good or very bad at any number of different tasks and there is no necessary relationship among the different abilities needed to do these tasks (Guilford, 1967, 1982). Some one can be very efficient in dealing with visual materials but inefficient with auditory materials.
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| Conclusion: |
| In nutshell, intelligence in a psychological view point is an aggregate of various abilities that enables the individual to have purposive thinking, practical reasoning and proper adjustment. Two form of intelligence has also been discussed namely as general intelligence, which is underlying ability at the core of personality and specific intelligence, which manifest in specific abilities in specific field.
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| INTELLIGENCE (BUDDHI) IN YOGA
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| Buddhi is manifested from the Sattvic aspect of Prakriti because the nature of sattva weightlessness, clarity and light- is affected sooner by the active force of manifestation than would be the heavy and unclear nature of Tamas. Because of the Sattvic quality of Buddhi the light of self reflects in the intellect similarly to the external object reflects in the clear surface of a mirror. The self seeing its reflection in the mirror of Buddhi identifies itself with the reflected image and forgets its true nature. Thus the feeling “I-ness” is transmitted to Buddhi. In this way the unconscious Buddhi starts functioning as a conscious principle. (Tigunait, 1983)
Swami Niranjanananda (1993) also suggested that Buddhi operates at two different levels. One which is related to external world of objects and senses, and the other which is an internal understanding of the principles which create and shape our personality. Similarly Swami Rama (1993) talked about Buddhi at two different levels- the lower Buddhi and the higher Buddhi.
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| Lower Buddhi:
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| It is a crude, perspective discrimination which simply reacts to the impressions coming onto the screen of Manas. It is a primitive kind of judgment, deciding that something is good and pleasurable or that something is bad and distasteful. It is still very much subject to the influence of strong memories emotions or instincts and its response is most likely governed by these thinking powers. Here reason is subservient to circumstances in the environment to urges or to impulses.
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| Beyond this elementary understanding which influences most of our lives, there is a more sophisticated range of Buddhi’s development. This more nature Buddhi is associated with the power of reasoning and using intelligence to arrive at a plausible, stable concept of reality and a coherent philosophy of life. It is basically pragmatic involving an intellectual framework which permits purposeful and rational organization of activities. Providing a rational, commonsensical sort of will, based on what is expedient and serviceable for functioning in the external world and what is compatible with acceptable standards of conduct and behaviour. It is the Buddhi that can select a set of ethical standards for morality. It can decide on a set of aesthetic values- an idea of what is beautiful and what is ugly and can construct a coherent network of opinions, as well as a reasonable notions of what one’s purpose should be. It is relatively highly developed and predominates in people who are genuinely cultured and educated.
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| When emotional or impulsive urges are very strong, they overwhelm the more reasonable faculties of the mind and gain an upper hand. Concern for overall welfare is abandoned. In this care we might say that the memories or sensory impressions that appear on the screen of Manas in themselves dictate the course of action. They serve as a sort of motivation. In fact habit and instinct predominate. Buddhi doesn’t so much make a decision as it forfeits its right to do so. It has not been sufficiently evolved to assert itself, so accedes to less rational motivation.
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| When Buddhi functions at a lower level then evolution at least for a moment stops. The motivations which operate then are those which characterize lower levels of development as observed in the infant or in animals. Past impressions, for example, are allowed to determine one’s response to a given situation. This in turn creates new memories or impressions essentially identical to the old, only even more heavily weighted and more deeply imbedded in the unconscious Chitta or memory bank. This impression will then return again later having an increased valence and more powerful influence. In this way, preferences become desires and desires become addictions. By acceding to impulses, Buddhi allows them to become strengthened. And a certain way of seeing and responding to the world becomes ingrained. This consolidates one’s position at a certain level of development, making it more difficult to develop past it.
Swami Niranjanananda (1993) speaks that in our daily lives we experience Buddhi as something external. We try to understand, observe and analyze things through our rationality. Our actions and behaviour are shaped according to the experiences of rationality. That is the external Buddhi or intelligence.
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| Higher Buddhi:
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| The highest Buddhi (Prajna) concerns itself disinterestedly with the pursuit of pure truth. Its decisions are uncompromising and cut through all illusion even that which is considered socially acceptable and ethically admirable.
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| When Buddhi functions at a higher level it asserts its authority over the realm of impulse, instinct and habit and choose some different course of action. Acknowledging the existence of these lower motivations it may make a decision which is relatively independent of impulses or past programming. Buddhi has some capacity to remain detached from the influence of memory traces & sense impressions. It has at least potentially, the ability to choose. Since it is by definition the decision making function, it can decide to permit influence by some memories & not others. By maintaining a detached observing attitude towards the other memory traces, it can allow them simply to pass away and dissipate. Buddhi can decide to step outside the chain of cause and effect. It can decide not to remain caught up in that cycle of action and reaction determined by previous programming. By using its full potential it acquires the property of “will”. This sort of performances by Buddhi is characterized as “pure reason” or “pure Buddhi” in Yoga psychology.
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| Higher Buddhi chooses to step free of prior programming. It is Buddhi alone, of all functions in the mental field which can lead to further growth. It is apparently for this reason that the functions of discrimination and judgment have been conceptualized as independent in yoga psychology. It is singled out for special attention because it is growth oriented. Buddhi’s capacity to decide not to fail in the cause and effect of previous programming is a major fact in yoga psychology.
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| Higher Buddhi develop as we enter the realm of higher consciousness which can observe the mind. It is the discriminative power of the higher Buddhi that permits one to see the tendencies of the lower mind that leads to anxiety and mental anguish. Buddhi is both parts of mind and above mental events. As Buddhi becomes more evolved, it increasingly separates itself from the activities of Manas. As it develops it’s capacity for making decisions that disregard the impulses and impressions flowing through Manas, it becomes increasingly independent of them. As a result a level of “I-ness” evolves from which one can witness mental events without being involved in them. Eventually there emerges a kind of vantage point which exists above and beyond the hectic activity of the train of thoughts. This provides a point of observation, then from which the mental plane can be seen.
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| The realm of this pure buddhi is conceptualized in yoga as constituting the 4th level of consciousness, that which lies beyond the body, the energy and the mind. This is the level beyond that verbal, mental activity which we call “thinking”. Awareness ceases to be limited by word thoughts. This “sacramental” level of “pure reason” or intuition” or “wisdom” is where buddhi functions unimpaired by the distractions of sense impressions or the pre-occupations of a narrow personal egoism. Where Buddhi is evolved, mind is transcended.
According to Swami Niranjanananda (1993), the higher Buddhi is rooted in impressions of consciousness not yet manifest. This consciousness which is not manifest contains the experience of past lives, experiences which are carried through the agencies of our parents and grandparents (just like DNA) and contain information from the time of creation until now. The subtle Buddhi is influenced by this information in the form of Samskaras and Karmas. So, an aspect of realizing the Buddhi is gaining knowledge of Karmas and Samskaras.
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| Conclusion:
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| Buddhi which is also known as mahat or the great principle, is said to be the faculty closest to pure consciousness. When Buddhi is turned towards the enjoyment of sensorial pleasure, it causes bondage of the soul, but when it is endowed with dispassion, the soul turns towards liberation- In daily life it is Buddhi that motivates you to act according to your dharma (vocation). Any act judged with precision and accuracy is on account of the power and influence of buddhi or the higher intellect.
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| At a higher level Buddhi reflects itself through prajna (intuition) and vairagya (dispassion). Although these sublime qualities are inherent in Buddhi under the influence of maya and due to its association with ego senses and the three gunas, these qualities are often altered.
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| The characteristics of Sattvika Buddhi are wisdom, dispassion, reasoning, endurance, self control, discrimination and contemplation. In the Sattvika state Buddhi is without oscillation and assumes the role of Sakshi, (the witnessed). By the influence of Rajas, defects arise. As a result, Buddhi is unable to discriminate, and the decisions are often contaminated by false knowledge and avidya or ignorance.
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| Tamasika Buddhi comes under the sway of ego and is clouded by false knowledge, avidya or ignorance. Tamasika Buddhi comes under the sway of ego and is clouded by false information and false judgments.
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| In yoga psychology attention is directed mainly towards Buddhi’s ability to extricate one from this mass of conflict and contradiction rather than to the intricacies of the conflict itself as it occurs in Manas. Manas is in order to differentiate it from Buddhi. Buddhi must be trained and polished if it is to develop the ability to separate itself from the effect of these influences. Sri Aurobindo speaks of Buddhi as through it goes through a process of differentiation, becoming more evolved with each step. But in the more traditional yogic view, Buddhi does not evolve, it is simply uncovered. It exists already under the encumbrances of cruder and less matured functioning. The “crown jewel of discrimination” lies within, awaiting only patient, careful cutting and polishing to reveal pure Buddhi appears in a gradual manner like the state which is uncovered by the sculptor as he chips away pieces of marble.
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| C H A P T E R – IV |
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EGO IN PSYCHOLOGY AND YOGA
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| EGO IN PSYCHOLOGY
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| Literally the term ‘Ego’ means ‘I-ness’ but in psychology this term has been used by Freud in a completely different sense. According to Suleman and Nagina Prasad (1998), Ego is the second important part of dynamic aspect of mind. Frustration gives rise to the development of Ego. It is that part of mind which is related with the real external world. According to Freud it is a “self conscious intelligence” because it works after thinking a lot. Ego has the knowledge of reality so it makes a balance between Id and Superego; that means it satisfies both Id and superego. Therefore Ego is the servant of two masters with clashing interests. It can be best understood with the help of an example:
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| Adrish goes to the home of Sanjeev. Now he finds there a beautiful flower pot, Id says to steal it for his wife because the flower pot is beautiful. On the other hand superego says that this is a sin. It is an immoral and anti social activity. Society will not forgive such persons therefore one should not steal. Due to these two opposite forces of mind i.e. force of impulsiveness and force of moral value system, a state of tension results. Now keeping attention to these two opposite forces, Ego brings a way out. On one hand it satisfies the Id by saying that this is not a proper time to steal because someone can see and we can be taken to the police station so its good to wait for a better time. On the other hand it satisfies the Super ego by saying that this kind of wishes come in every mind so there is no question of accusing oneself. In this way Ego mediates between the antisocial, immoral desire of the Id and moral ethical control of the Super ego. Therefore we see that Ego, which has knowledge of reality, keeps both his masters happy. So we can say that Ego has to serve two masters with clashing interests.
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| R.W- Nice in “A handbook of Abnormal psychology” says that the ego is that position of the psyche which is in contact with the outside world on the other hand and the id on the other. It attempts to keep thoughts, judgments, interpretations & behaviour practical and efficient, in accordance with realistic living”. Suleman and Nagina (1998) talked of some characteristics of the Ego, which are as follows:
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| The Ego has every idea of time and reality: The ego has complete knowledge of reality as it works on reality principle. It understands the complexity of reality. When and how a work should be done, is concerned with ego always when it finds appropriate environment, it fulfills the desire of Id.
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| Ego is free from logical fallacy: Before fulfilling a desire, Ego analyses the result first, that it is good to do it or not. If it is good, it fulfills the desire: If it is bad it does not, in both the situations, the person doesn’t find any danger.
The Ego is conscious & unconscious both: One of the very important characteristics of Ego is that it is conscious & unconscious both. Due to it is unconscious nature, it understands Id properly and also its desires. Without the suggestion of ego, no desire of Id is fulfilled. On the other hand, due to its unconscious nature, Ego has knowledge of reality.
Ego is the adjuster between the organism and environment: Ego controls and conducts all the behaviour of a person; it analyses upon the result of an activity seriously and fulfills the desires of Id in an appropriate situation. Therefore ego makes a pact between desires of Id and complexity of reality. This pact as a result establishes balance in a person. Moral and social desires of Id are fulfilled by Ego normally but its immoral and unsocial desires gets repressed unconscious mind in abnormal behaviour. Therefore it is clear that Ego makes a balance between environment & organizing by satisfying desires of Id as necessary, with normal or abnormal behaviour.
Ego is not concerned with Morality: Ego doesn’t know that which activity is moral & which one is immoral? It only knows that what sort of activity should be done at this time? Immoral and antisocial activities are also done by Ego when appropriate time is found for that. For this it doesn’t have any remorse. Therefore we can also say Ego as opportunist.
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| Apart from the above discussed characteristics, Ego also plays a very vital role in dealing with tensions and frustrations. When we become tense of some dangerous situations, Ego tries to solve the problem at a conscious level. But when the problem is not solved consciously, it quickly calls upon the unconscious defense mechanism of repression, which takes away the conscious conflict to the unconscious and the lost balance is regained at the conscious level.
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| Conclusion:
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| Ego, as discussed by Freud, is a healthy force of mind which is guided by reality principle. It brings in a balance between the Id and the Super ego thereby resulting in a balanced and harmonious personality development. For a healthy personality, the optimum strength of the Ego is a must. It is the Ego that calls upon the defense mechanism of repression in dangerous situations, which takes the danger away from the conscious mind. So in order to keep the conscious mind healthy, Ego plays a very vital role.
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| EGO (AHAMKARA) IN YOGA
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| According to Swami Rama (1993), a sense of ‘I’ leads the ability to separate the self from the flow of events and to think of one self as an individual entity. This I-ness in Yoga is called Ahamkara. In Sanskrit ‘Aham’ means “I am”. It makes possible the question: “What’s in it for me?” And lends the ability to say, “These are mine” By creating such barriers as mind & Thine, it separates the self from others. Thoughts are no longer merely the images flashes on a screen. They are “my thoughts”.
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| In the infant, the sense of “I”- “not I” is of such a nature that it is incomplete and easily overwhelmed. When something flashes on the screen of Manas, the infant identifies with it. He is it, although we often imagine that he sees the world as revolving about him. Actually he has taken on its characteristics. He has no stable, continuous characteristics to lend it. In this sense, he has no centre at all. His “Mental body” changes from moment to moment with the changing face that is offered by the world. In a less extreme form, this, this state of mind can also be seen in the older child when he is sick and irritable. At one moment he wants one thing, at the next moment another. Before he can be brought the toy or the snack he is said he wanted, he is changed his mind again, He due to changing mind pushes it away and asks for something else. I-ness (ahamkara) is shifting from moment to moment. At these moments, integration is temporarily lost. This is also seen in children when they are overwhelmed by emotions that change dramatically from one moment to the next. They become so absorbed or identified with the activity of the moment that they may do harm to themselves- walk into a busy street, for example.
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| Yoga emphasizes the lack of unity that exists in the sense of “I” even at this adult stage of development. Even a “mature ego” is seen as only relatively integrated. It still varies to some extent form to moment. It still struggles to keep out of consciousness. Those memories and impulses that could contradict its self-image. In Yoga psychology the potential for evolution is thought to extend far beyond the ego. The capacity of the human being for the growth and integration has been found to be much greater.
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| Ahamkara consists a whole spectrum of I-ness, from that which underlies the lowest animal’s effort to maintain its integrity through the range of normal ego development and, as we shall see, even beyond that. However, ahamkara is also more restricted in the functions it consists. It is not an active decision making, thought producing agent like the western psychology ego. It is simply the boundaries of I-ness. It is the line that separates “I” form “not-I’. It is the property of individuation. Within ego is contained the germ of individuality & thus a person of identification and attachment to objects and persons ensues. Ahamkara pervades each & every pore of your being. Its manifestation is extremely subtle and the web it spins so ensnaring that one remains bound in clutches life after life.
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| Ahamkara or ego forms the nucleus of existence within an individual. It is only on account of the ego that you relate to the things around you. If there was no ego, you would be gust like a plant or vegetable having no knowledge of your existence. This is the paradox of creation, that on one hand ego binds you to the plane of objective experience & on the other it exists as the nucleus which has to be exploded to awaken unified existence’s. In the conscious state or jagriti, ego operates through the gross body, i.e. the senses and thinking mind. In the sub-conscious state or swapna, the ego operates through the artral body and dream. When you are in deep sleep, sushupti the ego retires into seed state in the causal body, but in meditation it is in the form of inner awareness. Ahamkara is so deeply embedded that it even remains through the stages of savikalpa Samadhi.
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| The functions of ahamkara are affected by the three qualities of Sattva, Rajas and tamas. Sattvic Ahamkara is responsible for the notion that “I am” and acts as a catalyst in the process of self-realization. Ahamkara stirs up Samskaras as unfolded impressions from the sub-conscious mind, but under the influence of sattva or balance, it temporarily withdraws these functions. Rajasik ahamkara is a dynamic force which kindles “I-ness” in the individual, causing intense activity and restlessness. Ultimately it leads to dissipation of thought and action. Tamasika ahamkara deepens the painful and negative Samskaras, thus causing doubt, apprehension, fear and procrastination. Ahamakra can be considered the source of both limitation & liberation of the Jiva or individual soul. Although it stays with one a long time or one’s life journey, through Sadhana one is gradually able to refine its negative forces. By the practice of Tattva Suddhi, we become more aware of the subtlety of ego, thus making it easier to dis-identify with its lower functions.
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| Swami Niranjanananda (1999) says, “the word ‘ego’ means an identity with the self, which becomes predominant in our day to day affairs in relation to the cravings and desires of the senses and mind. Yoga speaks of ego in two different ways – one is ‘I’ and one is ‘I’ identity. The ‘I’ identity is known as ahamkara, aham meaning ‘I’ and akara meaning ‘identity’. We all have this ahamkara. We suffer from the ‘I’ identity syndrome, identification of the self with everything that happens to around us. This syndrome can take strange forms. For example, you pass somebody on the road who happens to be smiling. He looks at you with a glitter in his eye, and suddenly you begin to wonder, “Why is he smiling at me? Am I wearing my T-shirt back to front? Have I messed up my make-up? In actual fact, that smile has nothing to do with you. The other person is smiling because of a thought that has passed through his mind. You happen to catch the smile and superimpose it upon yourself, creating an intense self-awareness. ‘I’ identity is one of the main causes of suffering and conflict in the majority of people. In order to overcome this, the pure ‘I’, or jut the aham, is to be experienced. According to yoga, the experience of ‘I’ happens in a very systematic way. You begin to isolate the areas of identification with the self, from the self. Once you have isolated all the inputs, the ‘I’ identification drops away. Then only the ‘I’ remains, and that ‘I’ is the self.”
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| The meaning of ahamkara can be illustrated through an example of a story of King Akbar. King Akbar, a great king in India during the sixteenth century, had a very witty minister named Birbal. Birbal had many enemies among the court officers because he was always being favoured by the king. One day these officers thought up a plan to degrade Birbal. They started spreading the idea that the king was like God. They know that Birbal would not agree to that, and if Birbal did not agree to it the king would punish him. Certainly every king wants to be praised, and could not bear anyone who would not praise him. So, the officers started bowing to the king saying, “Oh king, to us you are God himself. But Birbal does not hold that view.” King Akbar who was very pleased with this praise, looked at Birbal and said, “How is it that you do not agree with what the officers are saying? Don’t you have any reverence for me?” And Birbal replied “why should I agree with these people? I consider you greater than God.” “How so?” King Akbar asked. And Birbal replied, “Because if someone commits an error, God would not drive him out of his kingdom. However if someone commits an error in your kingdom, you have the power to drive him out of your kingdom. Therefore you are above God.”
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| The subtle implication of this Story is that when you have ego, you place yourself above God. At though things around you are controlled by God’s plan, ego becomes overly assertive and makes you feel as if you are moving the world.
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| Conclusion:
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| Ego or ahamkara as discussed in yogic literature is the identification of the consciousness with the matter. This ‘I’ identity binds us on the plane of individuality. For spiritual development the ahamkara has to be rooted out from our personality. It is this identity with the body that leads to attachment and repulsion both resulting in frustration, tension and conflicts. So, in yoga, ego is a negative force that has to be eliminated in order to evolve.
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| C H A P T E R – V
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PERSONALITY IN PSYCHOLOGY AND YOGA
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| Personality has been the central issue among different psychologists right from the beginning till now. Several attempts were made to understand personality and to define the term. Darley et al (1991) summarized several viewpoints regarding personality. According to him, the psychoanalytic model of personality assumes that we are primarily motivated by drives and instincts over which we have little control: these motivations exist, for the most part in our unconscious. Personality is made up of three processes or systems- the Id, the Ego and the Super ego. A person’s behaviour is the product of the interaction, and often conflict, among these three systems. According to Freud, personality development takes place through four psychosexual stages: oral anal phallic and genital. Failure to resolve developmental challenges of those stages results in fixation. The Humanistic existential models of personality focus on the total personality as opposed to separate behaviours that make up personality. Biology and the environment are minimized as determinants, and personal choice is emphasized. Maslow emphasizes the drives for self actualization, which underlies all our needs. This drive is to realize our own potential by whatever means we can; it gives unity and organization to the personality. Roger’s person centered personality theory emphasizes the role of the self and conscious awareness in the life of the individual. The trait model of personality, the earliest ideas about the personality, attempted to account for person’s behaviour in terms of innate traits- enduring characteristics such as honesty or shyness. Social-cognitive models of personality view personality as being the result of a person’s unique cognitive organization of the world; in other words, a person’s actions flow from his or her perspectives. The learning and conditioning model of personality accepts that personality is a set of patterns of behaviour that we learn to make in response to specific stimuli, in accordance with how such responses were reinforced in the past.
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| Each of the models has its individual position on several key issues concerning personality and human nature in general. Some models of personality are more or less similar to others in their position on there issues. The different models of personality can be compared on the following three focal points: -
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| The structure of personality:
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| Personality theories vary in the terms they use to describe personality some use terms that imply personality comprises mental structures that can come into conflict with one another. Psychoanalytic theory is most notable for proposing that personality is composed of structures (the id, ego and super ego) that jointly influence the individual through the actions of drives and often struggle against one another for supremacy. Within the humanistic existential model, Roger’s concepts of self and ideal-self are mental structures that, though constantly being modified, are entities through which the individual interacts with and interprets life and that may at times be in conflict. The social cognitive model also uses structural concepts to describe personality but does not emphasize intra psychic conflicts. Rather, it stresses that the content of these structures whether they be scripts, personal constructs, and expectancies, whatever- is what is important in creating personality. Trait theorists differ somewhat in regard to their use of structural concepts. Instead of seeing traits as mental structures, they propose that they are basic dimensions of personality that an individual can possess more or less of, predispositions that dispose an individual to behave in a particular way consistently over situation and time.
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| Other theorists use concepts that imply process rather than structure. For instance, within the learning and conditioning model skinner speaks of responses, which are behavioral processes rather than mental structures. Virtually every concept within learning theory is an observable, behavioral one. Learning and conditioning theorists have been especially devoted to generating a theory devoid of concepts that imply mental structures
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| The nature of Development and the Possibility of change:
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| Some personality theories propose that personality is solidified early in life and that development from that point on is nothing but an unfolding of predetermined personality structures and processes. The model that represents this deterministic view in its most extreme form is the psychoanalytic model. According to psychoanalytic theory, development is complete by about age 5 or 6. By this time passage through the psychosexual stages has occurred most often leaving the individual with conflicts, fixations, or regressions that will continue to operate throughout childhood, adolescence and adulthood. A somewhat less extreme but related position is taken by the trait model. Trait theorists assume that traits (or their predispositions) are present at birth, and that these traits, together with environmental and maturational factors are powerful contributors to the organization of personality. Traits are what result in predictable and consistent behaviour in particular personality types. Unlike psychoanalytic theorists, however, trait theorists acknowledge that the interaction of these three factors- traits, environment and maturation can lead to personality change. Although personality structure influences the way in which the individual views the world, the world can also influence personality. Thus personality growth is possible through modification of traits. The remaining models, humanistic- existential, social- cognitive, and learning and conditioning, are all less deterministic. They emphasize that personality is always capable of change and growth, and that change and growth can be independent of major influences from the past.
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| The role of unconscious:
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| The majority of personality theorists acknowledge the existence of unconscious motivation, but there is considerable difference of opinion as to its exact character. According to psychoanalytic theory, material is kept in an unconscious state by the active process of repression. According to cognitive theory, subjective representation, like many other things a person does (such as constructing a grammatically correct sentence) is not immediately accessible to conscious analysis. The psychoanalytic model places a great deal of importance on the activity of unconscious drives, thoughts and conflicts. While the neo-Freudians allotted more “space” to the conscious area of the person ability, they also assumed that only a small fraction of personality is conscious and that the major portion of mental activity takes place outside the individual’s conscious awareness.
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| Within the learning and conditioning model Dollard and Miller disagree sharply with skinner about the influence of the unconscious on behaviour. Dollard and Miller’s notion of conditioned anxiety rests on the assumption that behaviour can be guided by fear that is disconnected from its original source. The original pairing of the neutral stimulus with the fear arousing situation is powerful precisely because its efforts operate outside conscious awareness. Skinner, on the other hand, sees no need to posit the existence of unconscious drives that produce behaviour. Instead be insists that behaviour is a result of external reinforcement contingencies that increase the probability that the behaviour will reoccur.
Within the trait model both Allport and Cattel acknowledge the influence of the unconscious on personality, but give it less importance in producing behaviour than psychoanalytic theorists do. In addition Allport unlike Cattel, emphasizes that the healthy individual is primarily motivated by conscious conflicts and wishes, and holds that the psychoanalytic emphasis on the unconscious has resulted in an excessive concern with psychopathology.
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| Both the humanistic- existential and the social-cognitive models make less of the concept of the unconscious than do psychoanalytic thinkers, but do talk about personality functions that go on outside awareness. For at least some of the humanistic psychologists, these are a result of the activity of defense mechanisms like repression and denial. For social-cognitive theorists, unconscious processes don’t result from the repression of sexually linked material, but from rapid fire, below awareness processes that occur in all aspects of a person’s thinking.
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| Different models of personality discussed a lot on the issue of personality but when it comes to define personality, several attempts were made right from the beginning. The word personality is derived from a Latin word ‘persona’ meaning ‘mask’. Earlier this literal meaning led psychologists to believe that personality is the organization of physical characteristics. But things changed later on, when personality was understood in terms of psychological characteristics only. But the most comprehensive definition till now was given by Allport (1937). He said, “Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustment to his environment”. On more or less the same line Eysenk (1952) said, “Personality is more or less state and enduring organization of a person’s character temperament, in talked and physique that determine his unique adjustments to this environment.”
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| On the basis of above definitions following characteristics of personality came into light:
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| Personality is a psycho-physical system:
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| Personality is an organization of both physical and psychological characteristics. The physical structure as well as the mental make up together gives a full picture of the total personality of the individual.
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| Personality is a dynamic organization:
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| Personality is dynamic yet static by nature. In different situations the personality makeup changes. When we are in front of our juniors then we feel confident, where as in front of our teachers we feel less confident. But on the other hand the inner core of personality never changes. An extrovert person never becomes introvert through out his life.
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| Personality determines unique adjustment:
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| Every personality has a unique combination of psycho-physical traits. No two individuals are same. It is due to unique organization of traits that two individual adjusts differently in a given situation. In a simple examination situation each one of us makes different behaviours to adjust. At the same temperature butter melts but egg becomes solid just because of difference in organization. Similarly each individual has unique adjustment in his environment due to their unique combination of physical and psychological characteristics.
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| Conclusion:
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| Therefore conclusively we can say that every personality is a dynamic and unique organization of different physical and psychological traits due to which one’s behaviour and thinking is of its own kind or unique in an given environment.
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| PERSONALITY (VYAKTITVA) IN YOGA
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| Human personality according to yoga is composed of purusha and prakriti i.e. consciousness and matter. Purusha apart from prakriti is pure being but by the admixture of prakriti it begins to function as personality. In the yogic system, when the light of consciousness (purusha) falls on matter (prakriti), personality emerges at the level of human beings. Personality is the identification of the knower with the instrument of knowing. The knower is purusha and the instruments of knowing consist of mind and senses. At the nucleus of the personality lies the pure consciousness, the true self. But this true self is covered with a covering, which is trigunatita i.e. of the nature of sattva, rajas and tamas. So we identify ourselves with the false self. Human personality has been conceived with the three gunas, with predominance of one over the other. The inter-play and interaction between the three gunas provides individuality and individual differences in personality although the nucleus of personality consists of the same pure consciousness in all human beings (Singh, 1977; Tigunait, 1983).
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| The manifested personality in yogic system has been conceived as an organization of body, mind and spirit. All these three components of personality interact and influence each other. As a result of unique organization and interaction of these three aspects of personality, every individual has a different personality. Misra (1998) on the basis of his researches in the yogic system concluded that a human personality is not a composite of skin, muscles, blood and bones but possesses three bodies i.e. Gross physical body or Sthool Sharira, Astral body or Sookshma Sharira and Causal body or Karana Sharira.
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| Gross physical body or Sthool Sharira:
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| The physical gross body is made up of the annamaya koshas that gives rise to flesh, bones, blood and nerves. This body consists of the pancha mahabhootas i.e. prithvi, jala, agni, vayu and akasha, the physical forms of the five gyanendriyas i.e. eyes, ears, skin, nose and tongue, and the five karmendriyas i.e. hands, legs, reproductive organs, excretory organs and vocal cord.
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| Astral body or Sookshma Sharira:
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| The Astral body consists of three sheaths namely vital or pranamaya koshas, mental or manomaya koshas and intellectual or vigyanamaya koshas. The pranamaya koshas consist of the vital force known as pranas that flow in astral tubes called the nadis. Prana is the subtlest form of energy that underlines all physical energies. It also sustains all the mental processes such as thinking, feeling, willing and reasoning. It is the sustainer of life and forces on this world. In a restricted sense, prana is the vital force that sustains life of man by performing various vital functions and keeps the body alive. Breathing is as effect of the prana. It is linked to the mind and senses. Though prana is one, it is known by different names due to its different functions in the body. Accordingly there are five major pranas and five sub pranas. Prana, Apana, Samana, Vyana and Udana are five main pranas. Naga, Kurma, Krikara, Devadatta and Dhananjaya are five sub pranas. Nadis are astral tubes through which pranic currents move. They can not be seen by naked eyes. There are 72,000 nadis. Among them Ida, Pingala and Sushumna are the most important. Ida and pingala correspond to left and right sympathetic chains. Ida flows through left nostril and is cooling. Pingala flows through the right nostril and is heating. Tamas predominates in Ida, and rajas in pingala. Sushumna is the best of all nadis. It arises from the basal plexus and passes through the spinal column through the subtle channel of the spinal cord up to the crown of the head. Chakras are junctions where nadis cross over. All important chakras that are also very important mystic centers are situated in the sushumna. These are mooladhara, swadhisthana, manipura, anahata, vishuddhi, ajna and sahasrara chakras.
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| The manomaya koshas consist of manas, buddhi, chitta and ahamkar, which together forms the mind called as antah Karana. The mind receives messages from the gyanendriyas, understands them and makes decisions for actions which are carried out by the karmendriyas. The vigyanamaya koshas are responsible for intuitions. Different constituents of the astral body are made up of tanmatras, the astral counter part of the five mahabhootas. The five tanmatras are – rupa, rasa, gandha, sparsha and .
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| Causal body or Karana Sharira:
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| Causal body is the inner most plane of a person. It is the source of astral and physical body. It is exclusively experienced in deep sleep and samadhi. During the experience of joy or grief it is the causal body that operates. Causal body and anandamaya koshas are the same. Swami Niranjanananda (1993) said that anandamaya koshas mean the body of bliss where the experience of spirit is taking place; where the individual personality has fused with the higher personality.
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| Causal body projects astral body and then astral body becomes the basis for the physical body. Body is the gross form which is visible, mind is the subtle form which is not visible, and spirit is beyond both i.e. it is neither part of the body nor of the mind. It is beyond both; it is the self, the seer and the witness, which watches body and mind performing their respective functions. Spirit is the source of mind. Spirit is the light through which the mind shines. Spirit gives energy to the mind for its functioning. Mind which is less subtle than the spirit is the bundle of the samskaras. It is a bundle of habits. It is the store house of vasanas and desires. It is the medium or the instrument that the spirit uses for functioning in this world. The gross form of mind is the body. The mind uses the body to act in this material world. Body is the tool of the mind, in the same way as mind is the tool of the spirit. There is an inter-relation between mind and body and one cannot survive without the other. The spirit is the master of both and is beyond both. The spirit uses mind and mind uses the body to perform actions.
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| Personality has been explained on the basis of the gunas as well. Prakriti has three gunas – sattva, rajas and tamas. When purusha is in sattva state it is pure and uncorrupt giving rise to a simple, clear, honest personality. But when the mixture of rajas and tamas of prakriti is added, the mind begins its function and gives rise to abnormal human behaviour of personality. When the person is dominated by rajas guna, the personality that emerges is dynamic, full of cravings, desires and actions. On the other hand, when tamas guna predominates personality becomes lethargic, ignorant and id dominant (Singh, 1977).
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| Conclusion:
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| In this way, we see that in yoga personality is a composition of physical, psychological and spiritual traits. All the three aspects of personality – Sthool, Shookshma and Karana Sharira – are inter related and inter dependent. One affects the other. For better personality development all the three aspects body, mind and spirit are taken into account in yoga.
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| C H A P T E R – VI |
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WESTERN PSYCHOTHERAPY AND YOGA PSYCHOTHEAPY
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| WESTERN PSYCHOTHERAPY:
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| The field of psychotherapy is very broad. Some people think that this is only for persons suffering from psychological diseases but it is not true. It is a method to solve the problems of personality and make it more balanced. It is helpful for those who are depressed, persons suffering from personal, social and emotional imbalances. Therefore we can say that psychotherapy is a method to treat personality maladjustment by psychological techniques. It is directed towards helping the patient to achieve a more adequate personality adjustment. Carson and Butcher (1992) summarized some definitions of psychotherapy as “psychotherapy means acting on the human mind by mental means with the intensions of affecting a cure or alleviation of illness.” (Landis & Bolles). Similarly Woolberg said, “psychotherapy is a form of treatment for problems of an emotional nature in which a trained person deliberately establishes professional relationship with a patient with the objective of removing, modifying or retarding existing symptoms of mediating disturbed patterns of behaviour and of promoting positive personality growth and development.
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| Aims of Psychotherapy:
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| Dealing with mental disorders and imbalances so that one can lead a normal and balanced life is the main aim of psychotherapy. Nagendra and Nagratna (1998) talked of two main aims of psychotherapy – clinical aims and dynamic aims
Clinical aims: Clinical aim is related to disease and symptoms. Psychotherapist deals with the symptoms of disease to make the persona balanced and normal. Some of the important clinical aims are as follows:
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| To relieve symptoms: The main aim of psychotherapy is to relieve the symptoms to make the person free from disease. Therapist knows very well that these symptoms are due to struggle, conflicts, emotional or social tensions. Therefore, the therapist solve out the disease. Then through different techniques the therapist tries to make the patient understand and solve the problem himself.
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| To increase ability to be happy: Every maladjusted personality has less ability to be happy. Therefore psychotherapists aim to make the patient normal and able to be happy.
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| To increase efficiency: The patient suffering from a psychological disease has low capacity to work. This is due to unconscious conflicts. The psychotherapist solves his problems and makes him able to run his business.
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| To aid in social adjustment: Some maladjusted people don’t rely on other members of the society. They are not satisfied with affection only, they expect more than that. Therefore, imbalance in social adjustment occurs. Psychotherapist aims in making people adjust wit the society.
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| To increase spontaneity: From has emphasized on this point. According to him a therapist must try that the patient can make balance between his self wish and social adaptation.
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| To adjust bodily functioning: In general it can be said that psychotherapy aims in making balance in physiological works, loss of appetite, emotional imbalances for example.
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| Dynamic aims:
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| To increase the feeling of self esteem and security: Psychotherapist tries at best that the patient should not understand himself helpless, alone and guilty. The patient is told that all the people have such type of problems up to some extent, so that self-esteem and security must be saved in the patient.
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| To increase insight: Increasing insight of the patient is one of the main features of psychotherapy. Patient knows his emotional condition very well due to increase in happiness. He becomes able to know about his suppressed desire, conflicts etc.
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| To increase self-acceptance: It is necessary for the therapist to increase the self-acceptance of the patient so that he can move forward always. Now he does not finds himself different from others rather he finds himself same as others. He accepts his demerits and merits as well.
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| To release fundamental inclination: One of the main aims of psychotherapy is to release the fundamental inclination. The patient finds his mood very happy and peaceful. Help of different techniques are taken for this.
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| To motivate towards positive goals: Psychotherapy aims in solving conflicts and tensions and motivating the patient towards positive goals. His ego becomes strong to fight up with the situation.
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| In the context of western psychotherapy, in the following lines we will discuss the relevance and process of psychoanalysis as propounded by Freud.
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| Psychoanalysis as a technique of western psychotherapy:
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| According to Darley et al (1991) the psychoanalytic or Psychodynamic model formulated by Freud locates the origin of abnormal functioning in emotionally painful childhood experiences or events that have resulted in arrested personality development. As an adult the person is unable to resolve unconscious conflicts and impulses except by maladaptive defense mechanisms such as excessive repression. Therapy sessions are designed to bring the patient’s insight into these painful childhood episodes.
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| The goal then, of psychoanalysis and psychodynamic psychotherapy is to produce insight- that is to solve psychological problems by bringing unconscious conflicts into conscious mind, where they may be confronted and resolved. The focus is on underlying ways of experiencing things and thinkers about them rather than on behaviour. In Freudian terms, the purpose is to strengthen the ego, increase the awareness of the id, and bring the superego under control. Behaviour change, if necessary, is expected to follow insight. Analysis enables patients to become aware of the effects that unconscious conflicts are having on their behaviour, thus permitting them to act on the basis of rational choices rather then unconsciously driven actions.
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| Psychoanalytic therapy uses several techniques- most of them are originated by Freud- as part of the therapeutic process. One of the best known is free association, in which the client is encouraged to say whatever thoughts come to his mind, regardless of how illogical, irrelevant or embarrassing they may seem. Freud said that free association should be like someone viewing scenes smoothly flowing by a train window. The theory is that by disregarding intellectual judgment and interpretation, the person will bypass the ego’s defenses and produce clues to the unconscious source of problems.
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| Interpretation is another technique used by the psychoanalytically oriented therapist to make the unconscious conscious. When the person seems ready to face underlying problems, the therapist suggests possible hidden meanings or defense mechanisms revealed by the person’s actions or statements. The therapist points out connections and associations the client may not have seen- connections between belief and actions, or between current attitudes and past events.
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| Psychoanalysts and psycho dynamically oriented psychotherapists use the clients dream as clues to the true nature of the client’s problem. Freud says that when we are asleep, the ego and superego are not as much in control as when we are awake, and therefore unconscious impulses surface, allowing the analyst or therapist to see more clearly where problems might lie. But this is not an easy process because the ego still exercises some control over dream content disguising the real conflicts represented in the dream. According to Freud, dreams have two levels of content. One is the manifest content, the overt and the concrete happenings of the dream. This is the dream as dreamers experience and remembers it. The other level is the latent content, the hidden and symbolic meaning of the dream, the disguise that the impulse appears in. It is the latent content of a dream, that the psychoanalyst helps people to understand and use to gain insight into their hidden conflicts.
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| Sometimes, a patient stops free associating, or denies the therapists interpretation of an action or statement, or rejects the therapist’s interpretation of the latent content of a dream. When this happens, what gets in the way is the person’s own resistance. The resistance is regarded as significant and is analyzed as a possible opportunity for insight and interpretation. It is seen as evidence that the person is getting close to the source of a problem that makes him or her uncomfortable, which is why the person needs to resist.
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| As therapy progresses, a special relationship, called transference, develops between patient and analyst. At this stage, patient begins to form irrational expectations of the analyst. They may feel that the analyst is angry with them, trying to seduce them, or expecting too much of them. Their own reaction may be anger, fear, love, or an effort to dominate the analyst. According to Freud these unrealistic interpretations are a result of transferring past relationships with important adults (usually parents) to the analyst, relating to the analyst as if he or she were the parent figure unconsciously, patients expect the analyst to react the way their parents would, so they re-enact repressed wishes and experiences. A patient with a stern, demanding mother, for example, might express the fear that the analyst or therapist is displeased with the progress of the therapy. A patient who was emotionally abandoned by an unresponsive father might feel that the therapist is not really interested in helping with the problem. By recognizing the role in which the client castes them and observing how the client acts towards them, alert analysts are able to understand a good deal about the client’s early relationship with parents- a likely source of psychological difficulties. Most importantly, through the analysis of the transference, the therapist is able to help the patient see how the present is misperceived on the basis of past memories. Through this analysis, the patient comes to distinguish the present from the past, fantasy from reality and, eventually, to control his or her own fate and happiness.
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| Conclusion:
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| In this way we see that western psychotherapy not only aims to eliminate psychological disorders through psychological techniques but also helps the patient to develop positive qualities needed to live a healthy and harmonious life. Psychoanalytic therapy uses several techniques like free association, interpretation of dreams, resistance and transference in order to let the patient become free from the unconscious influences.
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| YOGA PSYCHOTHERAPY
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| Yoga, a science of mind, is the highest product of Indian Psychology. It has both pure (general) and applied forms. In its applied form it has been put to use for solving all problems and achieving healthy human behaviour starting from the cure of diseases up to the attainment of supreme being. So it has also been applied for the purpose of therapy to all kinds of somatic and psychic illness. Yogic approach is always psychic therefore through psychotherapeutic methods it treats diseases. We can define, “All yoga therapy is psychotherapy as its aim is chittavritti nirodhah” (Singh, 1977). Coster (1957) giving her conclusion of the book remarks, “My plea is then that yoga as followed in the east is a practical method of mind development, quite as practical as analytical therapy, and far more practical and closely related to real life that average university courses. Furthermore, I am convinced that the yoga sutras of Patanjali do really contain the information that some of the most advanced psychotherapists of the present day are ardently seeking.” Similarly Behanan (1937) emphasizing the universality of Yoga says, “Thus in a sense, yoga may be called ‘cosmic therapeutics’ and its analysis of the mind is coloured by this underlying aim.” When yogic methods are applied to cure mental disorders, it is called ‘Yoga Psychotherapy’. Rajas and Tamas gunas create all behavioural deviations, so the suspension of the vrittis and the establishment of required psychic equilibrium in them is the object of yoga psychotherapy.
According to Swami Niranjanananda (1998), “we contain both positive and negative qualities. Negative qualities are the tamasic, restrictive, detrimental qualities, which inhibit the growth and flowering of life. The positive qualities are rajasic and aid the process of growth in life. In the absence of such recognition, our inner body which is comprised of manas, buddhi, chitta and ahamkara, is in a state of imbalance. This state of imbalance creates physical, emotional and mental disturbance which later manifest in the form of psychological disorders. Modern therapies are trying desperately to find a way to promote health, but their concept of health promotion is very superficial. They look at the symptoms of the disease, which has already taken hold and try to rectify that. They look at that portion of the tree which is above the ground. If the tree is sick, if bugs are eating the leaves, they spray it and kill the bugs. Yoga says, don’t observe only the trunk, branches, leaves and fruits of the tree. We also have to take care of the roots. This is what happens in our life also. We are caught up in the negative emotions and which have full control over our actions, behaviour and thinking. These negative emotions or karmas, actions which have left their imprint in the mind-field have to be eliminated. In yoga psychotherapy we not only take care of the manifested symptoms but also work on eliminating the potent cause embedded deep within our psyche.”
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| Bhole (1994) summarized the principles of yoga psychotherapy and gave the following three points:
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- Bhole (1994) summarized the principles of yoga psychotherapy and gave the following three points:
- Individualization of instructions. Therapy is an art which requires individualization and it differs from individual to individual. In many respects it differs from other therapeutic approaches and also from games, sports and pilot programmes where instructions are streamlined for execution without the least concern for its practitioners. In yoga, however, the individual has to learn and practice for himself. Thus it really becomes the education-cum-treatment of the individual.
- Relaxation based on the concept of the panchkoshas. Every psychosomatic and functional disorder is an outcome of some stress based on raga i.e. clinging which leads to cravings and attachment because of pleasant feelings; or dwesha i.e. aversion leading to hatred and rejection because of painful sensation and feelings. This results in mental tension, excessive stimulation or inhibition of the nervous system affecting body and mind. Therefore, training in physical and mental relaxation is a must for all psychosomatic and psychological disorders amenable to yogic psychotherapy.
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| Yoga is very rich in methodology. Yoga is Indian psychology so all methods are strictly psychological in the broad sense. It believes in the functional unity of human personality with cosmic unity. Due to its varied practices yoga has the advantage of application to abnormals for therapy. In the case of those abnormals who are much incapacitated and also have physical and psychological etiology as in mild psychoses and neuroses, it starts with shodhanam (shatkarmas) then proceeds to asana, pranayama, Yama, Niyama and pratyahara. In the case of those having some control over the psyche as in mild neurotics it starts with Yama and Niyama then proceeds to asana, pranayama and pratyahara. The approach of yoga is triple i.e. body, nerves and psyche. Shodhanam directly purifies and energizes body, Yama and Niyama directly purify and energize psyche, asana and pranayama indirectly purify and energize the body, nerves and psyche. Pratyahara ultimately sublimates the psyche. So yoga treats the whole of personality. Thus it has the application capacity to all problems of personality (Singh, 1977).
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| Krishna Rao (1998) said that as a holistic system yoga psychotherapy deals with the body, mind and behaviour in a synergistic way. For this purpose it makes use of the procedures of asanas, mudras, breathing, relaxation, visualization and meditation and the principles of yoga such as yama, niyama, maitri, karuna, mudita, upeksha, abhyasa, vairagya, nishkama karma etc. Learning and working with some of these principles may be a part of the process of yoga psychotherapy.
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| The general orientation of yoga psychotherapy must be that the client should develop a broader perspective on self and world, self discipline, responsibility, acceptance, congruence, compassion and an attitude of witness to life with less ego involvement and more task orientation. From a psychological perspective meditation is essentially a procedure of expanding one’s awareness and directing that awareness to achieve control over body, mind, feelings and emotions, thoughts and behaviour. An attitude of meditation in action, characterized by attention, awareness and volitional control enables the individual to think, emote and act for self-fulfillment and social harmony must be the goal of yoga psychotherapy (Swami Ajaya, 1984).
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| The main problem in psychotherapy (especially psychoanalysis) is how to make ego energetic so that it can face reality, id and super ego and take charge of behaviour from which it has withdrawn. The controlling and administrative capacities of ego are finished. Yoga knows well that ego is weak and withdrawn in the psychological field so it gives it indirect training in the field of physiology. Yoga believes in the psychophysical unity of personality and that the action may start form any side but it will ultimately affect the whole personality. That is why it lets ego withdraw from psychic field and puts it first on physiological field for practicing asanas and pranayamas. In doing asana and pranayama ego has to put resistance and endurance to bodily functions. By and by ego gets capacity to control bodily functions and thus gains self-confidence and controlling capacity. At the same time by these practices the physiological side personality also gets toned up. Pranayama exercises give special energy to nerves. So by these yogic exercises there is improvement in body, nerves and psychic energy. When in due course ego has gained much self-confidence and controlling capacity and physiological strength too, the stage of pratyahara is reached and the ego is again brought to psychic field. Remaining withdrawn and inattentive from psychic problems and dealings for some time, psychic field becomes quiet. By the practices of pratyahara after sometime ego becomes successful in coping with the problems of psychic field and the disease is removed. Thus yoga is triple action.
Conclusion:
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| Yoga psychotherapy, as seen above, does not take only abnormal persons into its scope but normals are also taken for health hygiene and higher achievements. Again it treats all types of personalities. Again its methods treat patients of all ages and sexes – child, adult, old, male and female. Not only rural and urban but illiterate and literate persons are also treated by these. Because it is mostly altruistic in nature so both poor and rich are treated alike.
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| C H A P T E R – I |
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C H A P T E R – VII
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| SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
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| The main purpose of the present dissertation work was to see whether the terms and concepts used in western psychology and yoga psychology have similar meanings or are differently explained in the two disciplines. For the present study five such terms and concepts were selected used in western psychology as well as in yoga psychology. Those five terms were – Mind, Intelligence, Ego, Personality, and Psychotherapy.
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| Chapter I briefly discusses the relevance and significance of the problems. There are good many terms and concepts that are frequently used in psychology as well as in yoga creating confusion in the minds of people. They are similar yet different in terms of interpretations made in the two disciplines of western psychology and yoga psychology. The present work was under taken in order to fill this gap in knowledge to some extent.
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| Chapter II is devoted to the concept of mind in western psychology and yoga psychology. On the basis of discussions made in this chapter it could be summarized here that in western psychology mind has been conceived in terms of mental processes namely cognitive, affective and conative processes. Freud believed that there are three levels of mind – conscious, subconscious and unconscious and it is the unconscious mind that influences the individual the most. He also talked of three forces of mind – Id, Ego and Super ego, which continuously interact with each other.
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| In yoga, mind has been conceived as a manifestation of consciousness at the individual level consisting of four aspects – manas, buddhi, chitta and ahamkara. In yoga, mind has been talked of at two different levels – the impure mind and the pure mind. The impure mind is very close to the psychological concept of mind, which receives stimulations, understands them and makes decisions of action and is subject to desires and cravings. On the other hand the pure mind is responsible for higher knowledge and understanding where there is no tension, craving or desires. Several yogic techniques have been prescribed to achieve the pure mind or in other words the very aim of yoga is to stop the fluctuations of the impure mind and to establish oneself in the pure mind (yogah chitta vrittis nirodhah).
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| In nut shell, it can be concluded that in psychology consciousness comes under mind where as in yoga mind comes under consciousness. The reason being the difference in meaning of consciousness in both disciplines. In psychology, consciousness is present awareness where as in yoga consciousness is the ultimate reality. Psychology talks of mind only at the individual level which is subject to receive stimulations, understand them and making decisions of actions. On the other hand, yoga not only talks of the impure mind but also holds the opinion that the impure mind must be transcended in order to establish oneself in the higher mind. Psychology talks of three levels of mind – conscious, subconscious and unconscious. In yoga, four levels have been discussed jagrit, swapna, sushupti and nidra. But actually these four levels are not the levels of mind rather they are the levels of consciousness.
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| Chapter III is devoted to the concept of intelligence in psychology and yoga. Intelligence, in psychology, has been conceived as a group of different abilities that helps the individual to effectively meet the demands of the situation.
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| On the other hand, yoga talks of intelligence in terms of buddhi at two levels – lower buddhi and higher buddhi. Lower buddhi helps the person to understand a situation and to make decisions as per the guidance of the self. Here one thinks in terms of gains and loss. Lower buddhi can be said as an opportunist that makes decisions in relation to the individual. Higher buddhi, on the other hand, consists of the discriminative ability i.e. the ability to differentiate between right and wrong. Through gradual unfoldment of the consciousness one can enter the realm of higher buddhi. Yoga believes that every human being has the higher buddhi, it is just a matter of unfoldment where as psychology says that intelligence varies from person to person.
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| Chapter IV is devoted to the concept of Ego in psychology and yoga. In psychology, it was Freud who talked much about the concept of Ego. He conceived Ego as a balancing force guided by reality principle. He believed that for a healthy personality optimum strength of the Ego is a must as it brings a way out between the struggle of impulsiveness of Id and morality of Super ego. Hence, in Freudian psychology, Ego has bee taken as a positive force that ensures harmonious and balanced personality development.
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| Yoga talks of Ego in terms of ‘ahamkara’ i.e. I-ness. This ahamkara provides individuality to the person. Or evolution of personality ahamkara has to be eliminated. Yoga talks of three kinds of ahamkara – sattvika ahamkara, rajasika ahamkara and tamasika ahamkara. Yoga believes that ahamkara leads to attachment (raga) or repulsion (dwesha) producing negativity in one’s personality. Hence, it could be said that psychological Ego is positive and healthy where as yogic Ego is negative and unhealthy.
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| In Chapter V, concept of personality in psychology and yoga has been discussed in details. In psychology, personality is a unique organization of physical and psychological characteristics. In this context different approaches of personality have different opinions. Psychoanalytic viewpoint suggests that personality is an outcome of a continuous struggle between the three forces of mind namely Id, Ego and Super ego. It also suggested that first five years are the building blocks of personality. Trait approach conceived personality as a group of different traits like extraversion-introversion, neuroticism-psychoticism. Behavioural approach conceived personality as a group of learnt behaviours. Humanistic approach conceived personality as a manifestation of inherent needs and self concept. Basically, in psychology personality has been conceived as a combination of body and mind.
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| According to yoga, personality evolves at the level of human being when the pure consciousness merges with matter. Personality here consists of three bodies – Physical or Sthool Sharira, Astral or Shookshma Sharira and Causal or Karana Sharira i.e. body, mind and spirit. Yoga not only talks of structure of personality rather also talks of evolution of personality.
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| In nut shell, it can be concluded that psychology describes normal and abnormal personality where as yoga describes normal, abnormal and above normal personalities. Psychology talks of development of harmonious and healthy personality where as yoga talks of evolution of personality from gross to subtle i.e. from Sthool Sharira to Karana Sharira.
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| Chapter VI discusses the concept of western psychotherapy and yoga psychotherapy. Psychotherapy is a means to treat mental disorders and to help the patient develop positive qualities for better adjustment. Yoga psychotherapy not only aims to treat mental disorders rather is also applicable for healthy individuals because according to yoga even so called normal persons are also abnormal from a higher point of view.
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| Yoga has been compared by some western scholars with psychoanalysis. Guyot (1977) considering yoga equivalent to psychoanalysis explains yoga method of diagnosis in the following words and then recommends it for European use, “hatha yoga psychoanalysis unearths these complexes by means of very simple and traditional methods. Freud brought psychoanalysis into fashion in the west, but the traditional yoga possesses millenary psychoanalysis that is much more complete. Freud brings every thing back to sexual complexes where as yogic psychoanalysis deals with all the complexes.” Similarly Coster (1957) compares yoga with psychoanalysis and finds yoga far excelled. Some of her noteworthy remarks are “analytical therapy in the west is very new and young experiment, yoga in the east is a very ancient and mature technique. If however the whole matter of moral and social discipline, relaxation, breathing and control of thoughts by meditation were approached by psychotherapist in the non-religious and scientific attitude of the student of yoga, it might well be that this would lead to the discovery of new and valuable psychotherapeutic methods.” Similarly Behanan (1937) remarks, “both these approaches divested of theoretical formulations are in the final analysis therapeutic systems. To be sure, yoga goes much farther than psychoanalysis, for ever fear of death, which is an underlying cause of mild neurosis in may people, does not assail the yogin.” Sri Yogendra (1959) comparing yoga and psychoanalysis says, “thousands of years in advance yoga recognized the full significance of all such issues, namely the need and usefulness of the process of sublimation, and has recommended the replacement, deflection or purification of the energy not only the sexual impulse but also the non-sexual mental modifications (chitta vrittis).” Jaggi (1977) opines, “thus while psychotherapy as part of western medicine is still in infancy, Indian yoga system which professes the same thing traveled long distance centuries ago.”
Actually psychoanalysis is beginner’s attempt while yoga is expert’s technique. Psychoanalysis is a part but yoga is whole. It treats body, nerves and psyche i.e. the whole personality while psychoanalysis treats only the psyche. Because it treats the whole personality therefore the effects are more lasting and promising. Lesser time consumption is another advantage. Because yoga takes the aid of three things or rather applies therapeutic measures from three sides, therefore, it is able to control the disorder in lesser time with more efficiency and in more completeness. Yoga as a method of diagnosis, therapy, analysis has similarity to some extent with psychoanalysis in the west. Their similar concepts are – unconscious as determining factor, polarity of wishes, eros and thantos i.e. rajas and tamas and method of sublimation. Beyond this, yoga is far advance and complete theory of mind befitting all times, places, cultures and people. Yoga leads man from abnormality to normality and from normality to super normality.
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| Conclusion:
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| As a matter to conclude the whole dissertation following conclusions may be drawn: -
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- Western psychology talks of mind in terms of its structure, contents and dynamism. All together mind in psychology is subject to tension, frustration, conflicts etc. In yoga, mind has been conceived at two levels – Pure and Impure mind. The aim of yoga is to transcend the impure mind and to establish oneself in the pure mind.
- Intelligence, in psychology, is a group of different abilities that helps the individual to adjust in a given situation. Intelligence or buddhi, in yoga, is not only a group of general abilities (lower buddhi) rather is also conceived as the discriminating agent (higher buddhi).
- Ego, in psychology, is a positive and healthy agent, which needs to be developed for harmonious and healthy personality development. Where as Ego or ahamkara, in yoga, is a negative and unhealthy agent that needs to be eliminated for evolution in personality.
- Personality, in psychology, is a unique organization of physical and psychological characteristics. On the other hand, personality, in yoga, is a unique organization of physical, psychological and spiritual characteristics.
- Western psychotherapy aims to treat the mentally abnormals. In other words, it makes an attempt to bring abnormals to normal level. Yoga psychotherapy, on the other hand, not only brings abnormals to normal but also provides techniques to take normals to above normal.
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| The present dissertation is a humble effort to compare different psychological and yogic concepts. More extensive research can be done in order to have a wider and better understanding of these psychological and yogic concepts.
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